Zone of Proximal Development

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that the child is able to intellectually imitate, particu- larlywhenassistedbyamore capable guide, are indi- cators of emerging functions and demarcate the ZPD. Vygotsky uses the example of the initial efforts of the novice to learn chess. A child may play checkers with a chess set as a result of a conceptual generalization based on color. In developmental terms, the child has failed to acquire, at this point, a scientiﬁc concept of roles and functions indicated by the identities of the chess pieces. In the determination of the ZPD, interaction with the child is critical. Imitation and collaboration provide the basis for tailoring the teaching-learning experience of the child to developmental needs. Collaboration,in the Vygotskian sense, does not simply mean joint or coordinated effort. It refers to situations in which the child has the opportunity to interact in social contexts for the purpose of problem solving. Collaboration is necessary, in this sense, because it maintains the dynamic tension between what the child is able to achieve independently and what the child may achieve through imitation and the gradual apprehen- sion of modeled behaviors. Vygotsky was not speciﬁc about the role of the adult guide in the interactive environment of the ZPD. He mentioned only four guiding behaviors in his writ- ing on the subject: showing how to solve a problem and guiding the child in imitation; beginning a prob- lem and allowing a child to ﬁnish; proposing to a child that he or she solve a problem together with another, more developed child; and explaining a principle for solving a problem, asking leading questions, and ana- lyzing a problem. What is clear is that learning is enhanced in collaborative and guided environments like the circumstances of formal schooling. Autono- mous behavior and higher-order psychological func- tions begin in a social environment and are internalized by the maturing learner. The ZPD, clearly, has diagnostic and prescriptive uses, not all of which were contemplated by Vygotsky. As mentioned, many of these uses are analogical, met- aphorical, or schematic and do not necessarily integrate Vygotsky’s developmenta l model of sociocultural learning with speciﬁc practice. Vygotsky’s Methodology Vygotsky’s overriding concern was the development of the ‘‘higher psychological processes.’’ His critique of stimulus-response framework s, which included Russian psychology (reactology), German behaviorism (Wilhelm Wundt), and Western behaviorism (J. B. Watson, Edward L. Thorndike), centered on the fact that these models usually focus on the etiology of lower psy- chological functions—those shared by humans and anthropoids. Vygotsky’s theoretical focus was on the distinctly human characteris tics of higher psychological functioning. His methodology rested on three theoreti- cal dispositions: (1) a focus on the analysis of process rather than the observation and analysis of stable, ﬁxed objects; (2) an emphasis on the explanation of essential and deﬁning characterist ics of human psychological development rather than a focus on the merely descrip- tive and superﬁcially observable; and (3) a focus on the ‘‘historical’’ study of the process of change. Vygotsky believed that much of the psychological research of the time was brought to bear on ‘‘fossilized behaviors’’ that had become automatic or mechanized (i.e., autonomic). In short, he proposed a psychology that focused on the analysis of processes, the e xplication of the dynamics of human development, and the reconstruction and analysis of critical developmental junctures. Experimentally, Vygotsky’s model of the process of maturation led him to what he called, in Mind in Society, ‘‘the functional method of double stimulation.’’ This approach, as seen in the example discussed with relation to the topic of DA, allowed Vygotsky and later research- ers to identify the inner structure of current stages of maturation and to identify proximal stages. The experimental methodology of Vygotsky and later Russian psychologists inﬂuenced by him has not been entirely translated into English. Vygotsky, par- ticularly in his translated work, tended to report his conclusions and research methodology separately; although he uses frequent examples in the extant English language sources, they are usually unaccom- panied by the observational data. Later Vygotskians broadened the experimental base of his model, although much of that body of research has yet to be translated into English. Enduring Influence of the Zone of Proximal Development The inﬂuence of Vygotsky’s concepts on modern edu- cational practice can be reco gnized in the development of new models in instructional design. These models claim Vygotsky as a forbearer to the direct application of his ideas to the challenge of instructional design and delivery in the modern classroom environment. Zone of Proximal Development 1021 There is a deﬁnite relationship between Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of the ZPD and the proponents of collaborative learning, as Vygotsky provides the epis- temological model required to ground collaborative strategies in a theory of learning. In much the same way, constructivists of all types and inclinations tend to draw an unbroken line from Vygotsky, Piaget, and John Dewey to more recent expositors like Jerome Bruner, and then ﬁnally to current practices, without carefully distinguishing the unique and signiﬁcant contributions of each. More directly, the approaches generally known as situated cognition, cognitive apprenticeship ,and scaf- folding (and related constructs of modeling, coaching , and fading) ﬁnd theoretical support and epistemologi- cal grounding in the concept of the ZPD. Vygotsky’s achievement in developing the ZPD concept lies in the fact that he successfully combined a theory of child development and a psychosocial model of mind which, together, focus the process of teaching and learning directly on the child in his or her social context. In so doing, he may be regarded— along with John Pestalozzi, Maria Montessori, Dewey, and Piaget—as a progenitor of the child-centered view of modern education. With the ZPD, Vygotsky’s legacy must be considered fourfold: 1. The establishment of an organizing principle for instruction that relates whole child development in a social setting to speciﬁc learner goals to complete academic tasks and master learning domains 2. The redeﬁnition of the relationship between teachers and learners 3. The redirection and broadening of assessment criteria 4. The establishment of a critical link between formal schooling and psychological development The concept of the ZPD has been extremely pow- erful in the generation of systematic methodologies and practical strategies. Notwithstanding, the idea that the human mind is powerfully shaped by social forces and the interaction of the child with his or her envi- ronment is unsettling to Western, especially Ameri- can, educators who see it as contrary to half-formed, frequently nebulous and ill-deﬁned value formations, such as independence, American individualism, and self-reliance. This accounts for the fact that many practitioners have embraced the ZPD and practices derived from the concept itself, while neglecting or rejecting Vygotsky’s sociocultural point of departure and the developmental implications of the teaching– learning process. John J. Ketterer See also Learning; Learning Strategies; Learning Style; Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Further Readings Berk, L. E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young People. Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. V. (2004). Beyond the individual- social antinomy in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved January 21, 2007, from http:// www.massey.ac.nz/_alock/virtual/colevyg.htm Daniels, H. (2001). Vygotsky and pedagogy. London: Taylor & Francis. Gredler, M., & Shields, C. (2004). Does no one read Vygotsky’s words? Commentary on Glassman. Educational Researcher , 33 (4), 21–25. Lidz, C. S., & Jepsen, R. H. (2000). The Application of Cognitive Functions Scale. Unpublished manuscript. Marsh, G. E., II, & Ketterer, J. J. (2005, Summer). Situating the zone of proximal development. The Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration , 8(2). Retrieved December 12, 2007, from http://www.westga.edu/ % 7Edistance/ojdla/summer82/marsh82.htm Piaget, J. (1955). Language and thought of the child (2nd ed.). New York: Meridian Books. Rogoff, B., & Wertsch, J. V. (Eds.). (1984). Children’s learning in the ‘‘zone of proximal development.’’ San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tudge, J., & Scrimsher, S. (2003). Lev S. Vygotsky on education: A cultural-historical, interpersonal, and individual approach to development. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Educational psychology: A century of contributions (pp. 207–228). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Ed. & Trans.). Cambridge: MIT Press. (Original work published 1962) 1022 Zone of Proximal Development Entry titles are in bold. AAA. See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) AAIDD. See American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) AAMR. See American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) Abecedarian Project, 2: 853 Abouchaar, Alberto, 1: 479 Abraham, John, 2: 985 Abramson, Lyn, 2: 571, 2: 572 Abstinence education, 1:1–4 abstinence-only-until-marriage programs and, 1: 1, 1: 2 abstinence-plus program and, 1: 2 Adolescent Family Life Act and, 1: 2 Community-Based Abstinence Education and, 1: 3 desired learning outcomes of, 1: 3 effectiveness of, 1: 3 federal funding and, 1: 2–3 life skills components of, 1: 2 moral purity, marriage strengthening and, 1: 2 Office of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs and, 1: 3 selecting, evaluating programs and, 1: 3–4 sexual activity, pregnancy, STDs and, 2: 797–798 sexuality and, 1: 1–2 Special Projects of Regional and National Significance- Commuity-Based Abstinence Education and, 1: 3 teen pregnancy rates and, 1: 1 Academic achievement tests, 1: 51–52 American College Testing exam and, 1: 51, 1: 52 gender differences in, 1: 428 Graduate Record Exam and, 1: 51, 1: 52 group-administered tests and, 1: 51 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills and, 1: 51 Law School Admission Test and, 1: 52 Medical College Admissions Test and, 1: 52 Scholastic Aptitude Test and, 1: 51 Academic intrinsic motivation (AIM), 1: 485–490 See also Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation Acceleration, 1:4–8 academic acceleration and, 1: 6 academic benefits from, 1: 5–6 advanced-level courses and, 1: 7 advanced placement and, 1: 5 affective adjustment and, 1: 6 benefits of, 1: 5–6 communication and, 1: 6 counseling, guidance needs and, 1: 4 definition of, 1: 4 emotional, social development and, 1: 4, 1: 6, 1: 7 equity of access and, 1: 7 gifted students curriculum and, 1: 4–5 gifted students support and, 1: 7 grade skipping and, 1: 5 identification and, 1: 6 Iowa Acceleration Scale and, 1: 7 maladjustment effects from absence of, 1: 6 model for, 1: 67 A Nation Deceived report and, 1: 5 negotiated curriculum and, 1: 6 ongoing issues in, 1: 7 opposition to, 1: 5 service or curriculum delivery systems and, 1: 5 types of, 1: 5 Acculturation, 1:8–9 acculturative stress and, 1: 8, 1: 9 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 anxiety and, 1: 8 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 Berry’s model of acculturation and, 1: 8–9 cognitive styles and, 1: 8 cultural identity and, 1: 8 cultural incorporation, biculturalism, integration and, 1: 9 cultural resistance, separation and, 1: 9 cultural shift, assimilation and, 1: 8–9 definition of, 1: 8 dimension of, 1: 8 language preference and, 1: 8 marginalization and, 1: 9 psychological acculturation and, 1: 8 See also Cultural diversity; Immigration Achievement. See Motivation Achievement-discrepancy model of identification, of learning disabilities, 2: 585 Achievement gap African Americans and, 1: 216–217 American Indians and, 1: 17, 1: 471 assimilationist approach to, 1: 224 biological explanation of, 1: 363 cultural diversity and, 1: 222 culture and, misconceptions regarding, 1: 224 I-1 Index Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-1 definition of, 1: 222 Hispanic Americans and, 1: 17, 1: 471 NCLB and, 1: 20, 1: 379, 2: 730, 2: 872, 2: 926 social class, classicism and, 2: 911 specific ethnic group and, 1: 16–17 Ackerman, P. I., 2: 695 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ADHD. See Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Adler, Alfred, 2: 819, 2: 869 Administration on Children, Youth and Families, 1: 305 Adolescent Aggression (Bandura, Walters), 2: 919–920 Adolescent Family Life Act, 1: 2 Adorno, Theodor, 2: 945 Adult Education for the Homeless Program, 1: 491 Adult learning, 1:9–15 activity-oriented learners and, 1: 11 Adult Learning (Thorndike) and, 1: 10 age differences vs. age changes study of, 1: 11–12 androgyny and, 1: 13–14 barriers, deterrents to, 1: 11 cognition, cognitive development and, 1: 14–15 critical, postmodern perspectives on, 1: 15 cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies of, 1: 11–12 demographic factors and, 1: 10 discovered vs. constructed knowledge and, 1: 15 dualistic vs. relativistic thinking and, 1: 15 experience as resource in, 1: 14 fluid vs. crystallized intelligence and, 1: 12 goal-oriented learners and, 1: 11 history of, 1: 10 humanism, behaviorism and, 1: 15 immigrants and, 2: 505–506 The Inquiring Mind (Houle) and, 1: 11 intelligence, memory, cognition and, 1: 11–13 learning communities and, 2: 579–584 learning-oriented learners and, 1: 11 life-long learning and, 2: 605–608 life transitions and, 1: 11 Jack Mezirow’s work in, 1: 14 multifactor view of intelligence and, 1: 12 naturalistic intelligence and, 1: 12 older learners and, 2: 744–748 participation in, 1: 10–11 perspective transformation process and, 1: 14 psychology and, 1: 10 Seattle Longitudinal Study and, 1: 11–12 self-directed learning and, 1: 10–11, 1: 14 short- vs. long-term memory and, 1: 12 situationed cognition and, 1: 15 statistics regarding, 1: 10 Allen Tough’s work in, 1: 10–11 transformative learning and, 1: 14–15 triarchic theory of intelligence and, 1: 12, 1: 439, 1: 441, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 689, 2:988–994 vocational education and, 2: 1003–1009 “women’s ways of knowing” concept and, 1: 15 Adult Learning (Thorndike), 1: 10 AECT. See Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) AERA. See American Educational Research Association (AERA) Affirmative action, 1: 260 African Americans, 1:15–21 achievement, cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217 achievement, cultural ecological theory and, 1: 18 achievement, culture styles vs. teaching methods and, 1: 18 achievement, environmental deficits and, 1: 18 achievement, ethnicity and, 2: 703–704 achievement, IQ scores variables and, 1: 18 achievement, reference group orientation and, 1: 18 achievement, self-worth theory and, 1: 19 achievement, socioeconomic factors and, 1: 18 achievement, stereotype threat phenomenon and, 1: 19 achievement gap and, 1: 16, 1: 17, 1: 20, 1: 216–217 achievement patterns of, 1: 18–19 African American English (AAE) and, 1: 218 athletic graduation rates and, 1: 71–72 attitudes affecting, 1: 16–17 Black biracial, foreign-born Blacks and, 1: 16 black racial identity development and, 1: 17 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas and, 1: 17, 1: 18, 2: 705 child abuse and, 1: 143 cultural diversity and, 1: 217 cultural learning styles and, 2: 704 differential treatment of students and, 1: 19 disciplinary actions and, 1: 250 drop out rates and, 1: 17–18, 2: 703 educational issues regarding, 1: 17–18 ethnic IQ score differences and, 1: 97 ethnicity, poverty and, 2: 703, 2: 806 gifted and talented programs and, 1: 17 health disparities of, 1: 19, 1: 222 hypothesis testing, knowledge acquisitions systems of, 1: 36 indentured servants, slaves and, 1: 16 kindergarten readiness, parental concerns for, 1: 449 language preservation and, 1: 218 majority culture and, 1: 16 mentally retarded mislabeling of, 1: 245, 2: 628 Mills v. the District of Columbia and, 2: 705 MSM (men who have sex with men) and, 1: 433 NCLB goals and, 1: 19–20 obesity and, 2: 740 parenting and, 2: 757, 2: 764 political affiliation of, 1: 17 political incorrectness, covert prejudice and, 1: 220 race-based rejection sensitivity and, 1: 19 racialization and, 1: 364 racist attitudes towards, 1: 16–17 religion and, 1: 17 research agenda regarding, 1: 19–20 school violence and, 1: 17, 2: 704, 2: 884 segregation of, 1: 16 special education and, 1: 17, 1: 245, 2: 628 statistics regarding, 1: 16 substance abuse and, 1: 17 syphilis research and, 1: 360, 2: 530 teacher training effectiveness and, 1: 20 test bias and, 1: 221 Aggression, 1:21–25 Adolescent Aggression (Bandura, Walters) and, 2: 919–920 aggressor-victim dyads and, 1: 23 attachment disorder and, 1: 77 I-2 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-2 bullying and, 1: 119–124 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 161 competition and, 1: 170–172 conflict and, 1: 180–181 consequences of, 1: 21–22 definitions of, 1: 21 deviant peer contagion and, 2: 770–771 domestic violence and, 1: 273–279 forms of, 1: 23 Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation of, 2: 919–920 functions distinctions of, 1: 23–24 future research directions regarding, 1: 24–25 gender differences in, 1: 423, 1: 430–431 instrumental vs. reactive functions of, 1: 23–24 neglect victims and, 1: 145 overt vs. relations forms of, 1: 23 peer victimization and, 1: 21 prevalence of, 1: 21 relationship contexts of, 1: 24, 2: 917 risk factors of, 1: 22–23 school crisis intervention and, 2: 665 social-cognitive underpinnings of, 1: 23 See also Peer influences; School violence and disruption AI/AN. See American Indians and Alaska Natives Aid for Dependent Children Emergency Assistance, 1: 492 AIDS. See HIV/AIDS AIM. See Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM) Ainsworth, Mary attachment theory work of, 1: 76–77, 1: 331–332, 2: 914 Aksan, Nazan, 2: 682 Alaska Natives. See American Indians and Alaska Natives Alliance for a Media Literate America (AMLA), 2: 652 Allport, Gordon Social Contract Theory of, 1: 188 stereotype work of, 2: 946 Als, Heidelese, 1: 301 Alternative academic assessment (AAA), 1:25–29 advantages of, 1: 25 benchmarking advantage of, 1: 28 criterion-referenced CBA and, 1: 27 curriculum-based assessment, for instructional design (CBA-ID) and, 1: 27 curriculum-based assessment (CBA) and, 1: 25–26 curriculum-based evaluation (CBE) and, 1: 27 curriculum-based measurement, oral reading fluency (CBM-R) and, 1: 26, 1: 28 curriculum-based measurement (CBM) and, 1: 26–27 efficiency advantage of, 1: 28 general outcome measures of, 1: 26 home education and, 1: 474–485 informal reading inventories (IRIs) and, 1: 27–28 local norms use advantage of, 1: 28 performance-based assessments and, 1: 25 production- vs. selection-type responses and, 1: 25 subskill mastery measures of, 1: 26 utility for progress monitoring and, 1: 29 utility within the problem-solving model and, 1: 28 See also Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) Amabile, Teresa, 1: 196 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 2: 668 American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), 2: 668, 2: 670 American Educational Research Association (AERA), 1:29–31 divisions of, 1: 29 special interest groups (SIGs) of, 1: 29, 1: 30–31 testing standards and, 1: 469, 2: 645–646 validity defined by, 2: 995 Web site of, 1: 31 See also Ethics and research American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1:31–37 achievement gap and, 1: 17, 1: 471 African Indians and, 1: 32 American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 and, 1: 34 assessment, diagnosis, treatment inadequacies and, 1: 35–36 assimilation, acculturation practices and, 1: 33–34 berdache (two spirit people) and, 1: 433 blood quantum measure of ethnic identity and, 1: 32 boarding school era and, 1: 33–34 child abuse and, 1: 143 Columbus’s contact and, 1: 32 community social development of, 2: 918–919 cultural diversity and, 1: 217 culture transitions of, 2: 918–919 disease impact on, 1: 32 European-modeled slavery and, 1: 32 family influences and, 1: 399 fetal alcohol syndrome and, 1: 34–35, 1: 222 First Nations persons and, 1: 31–32 forced marches and, 1: 33 genocide and, 1: 33 Head Start programs and, 1: 461–462, 1: 464 health, resiliency, balanced way and, 1: 35–36 heritage or bilingual maintenance programs and, 1: 101 history of, 1: 32–34 Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 and, 1: 34 Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 and, 1: 34 Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 and, 1: 34 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act and, 1: 34 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 and, 1: 34 indigenizing the mainstream and, 1: 36 indigenous languages, bilingual education and, 1: 100–101 indigenous science, knowledge acquisition and, 1: 36 institutional distrust and, 1: 35 language barriers and, 1: 35–36 language preservation and, 1: 218 learning and, 1: 36 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 and, 1: 34 Native American terminology and, 1: 226 physical and mental health disparities of, 1: 34–35, 1: 222 process emphasis and, 1: 35 racial vs. national identity of, 1: 364 reservation system and, 1: 32, 1: 33, 2: 918–919 self-determination policies toward, 1: 34 situational bias and, 1: 221 Index ———I-3 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-3 spatial worldview and, 1: 35 statistics regarding, 1: 31–32 stereotyping, stigma, discrimination and, 1: 35–36 Termination policy toward, 1: 34 test bias and, 1: 221 treaty making, land concessions and, 1: 32 Tribally Controlled Schools Act and, 1: 34 21st century and, 1: 34–35 values, ancient knowledge and, 1: 35–36 American Montessori Society, 2: 679 American Psychological Association, 1: 469, 2: 646 American School Counseling Association (ASCA), 2: 867–868 American School Counselor Association, 2: 662–663 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 2: 508–509, 2: 1010 AMI. See Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) AMLA. See Alliance for a Media Literate America (AMLA) AN. See Anorexia nervosa (AN) Anderson, Lorin W., 1: 111 Anderson, Virginia, 1: 450, 1: 452 Androgyny, 1:37–38 adult learning and, 1: 13–14, 2: 607 androgen insensitivity syndrome and, 1: 38 Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and, 1: 37 Bodies That Matter (Butler) and, 1: 37–38 congenital adrenal hyperplasia and, 1: 38 constructivism and, 1: 37 Darwin’s sex binary and, 1: 37 gender fluidity and, 1: 37 gender identity disorder and, 1: 37, 1: 434, 1: 436 hermaphrodites and, 1: 38 intersex term and, 1: 38 Malcolm Knowles’ work on, 1: 13 meaning of, 1: 37 See also Gender; Gender differences; Gender identity Animal Care Panel, 1: 360 Animal Welfare Act, 1: 360 Annas, George, 2: 533 Anorexia nervosa (AN), 1: 307–308 amenorrhea and, 1: 308 binge-eating/purging subtype of, 1: 308, 1: 313 body shape, weight misperceptions and, 1: 308, 2: 796 bulimia nervosa and, 1: 310 family, twin studies of, 1: 310 gender differences in, 1: 309 history of, 1: 309 Maudsley family therapy approach for, 1: 312 media, advertising and, 1: 434 mortality rates of, 1: 310 prevention and treatment of, 1: 312 prognosis of, 1: 310 sociocultural factors and, 1: 311 suicide and, 1: 310 weight gain fears and, 1: 308 Antisocial personality disorder (APD), 1: 173, 1: 275 Anxiety, 1:38–44 academic, social-emotional functioning affected by, 1: 40 acculturative stress and, 1: 9 acute stress response and, 1: 39 anxiety disorder, NOS type of, 1: 42 applied behavior analysis and, 1: 43–44 Asian American youth and, 1: 59 assessment of, 1: 42–43 behavioral development model of, 1: 40 behavioral inhibition and, 1: 40 behavior modification treatment of, 1: 92 biological development model of, 1: 40 bullying victims and, 1: 122, 2: 884 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 160, 1: 161 cognitive development model of, 1: 40 comorbid conditions of, 1: 39–40 components of, 1: 38–39 cross-cultural transition and, 1: 8 definition of, 1: 38 developmental precursors to, 1: 40 developmental stages and, 1: 39 developmental stuttering and, 1: 169 disorganized attachment type and, 1: 75 divorce, remarriage, the family and, 1: 398–399 effects of, 1: 38 etiological factors of, 1: 40 flight-or-fight response and, 1: 39 gender differences in, 1: 39 generalized anxiety disorder and, 1: 41 genetic influences in, 1: 40 homelessness and, 1: 493 hypervigilance and, 1: 41 learned behavior theory of, 1: 40 learned helplessness and, 2: 572 negative affectivity and, 1: 39 neglect victims and, 1: 145 obsessive-compulsive disorder type of, 1: 41 overweight children and, 2: 740–741 panic disorder type of, 1: 42 parenting control and, 2: 763 peer victimization and, 1: 22 personality characteristic of, 1: 40 posttraumatic stress disorder type of, 1: 41–42 prevalence of, 1: 39–40, 2: 661 prevention of, 1: 43–44 refugees and, 2: 506 separation anxiety disorder type of, 1: 42 sexual abuse victims and, 1: 145 social phobias type of, 1: 41 specific phobias type of, 1: 41 symptoms of, 1: 39, 1: 40–41 treatment of, 1: 43 types of, 1: 41–42 unique emotion of, 1: 39 APD. See Antisocial personality disorder (APD) Apple, Michael, 1: 484 Applied behavior analysis, 1:44–47 antecedents, responses, consequences of, 1: 45, 1: 93, 1: 95 behavioral orientations and, 1: 43–44 Behavior Analyst Certification Board and, 1: 43 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 159–162 contingency contracts and, 1: 184–185 discrimination, generalization, concept formation and, 1: 46 education applications of, 1: 47 extinction technique and, 1: 45 fading process technique and, 1: 46 functional behavioral assessment and, 1: 46 historical and current applications of, 1: 46–47 I-4 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-4 intervention change focus of, 1: 46 methodological practices of, 1: 46 modeling technique and, 1: 46 naturalistic observation and, 2: 722–724 observational learning and, 2: 743–744 operant conditioning and, 1: 44, 1: 46, 2: 749–751 personalized system of instruction and, 2: 786–790 positive vs. negative punishment consequences and, 1: 45 positive vs. negative reinforcement consequences and, 1: 45 precision teaching and, 2: 809–812 Premack Principle and, 2: 813–814 primary vs. conditioned reinforcers and, 1: 45 principles and techniques of, 1: 44–46 psychology and, 1: 47 punishment consequences and, 1: 45 reciprocal determination and, 2: 842–843 reinforcement and, 2: 845–846 reinforcement schedule and, 1: 45 reinforcing consequences and, 1: 45 shaping or successive approximations procedure and, 1: 46 B. F. Skinner and, 1: 46 social application of, 1: 47 token reinforcement programs and, 2: 981–983 visual, verbal, physical prompts and, 1: 45–46 See also Learning strategies Aptitude, 1:47–50 achievement, ability and, 1: 48–49 aptitude is current skill and knowledge and, 1: 48 aptitude is unchanged by experiences, intervention, learning and, 1: 48 cognitive aptitude tests and, 1: 48 definition of, 1: 47 domain of individual differences and, 1: 47 individual differences from innate, environmental influences and, 1: 47 individual differences that are innate, unchanging, immutable, 1: 47 learning outcomes focus and, 1: 47 nature and nurture in, 1: 49 See also Aptitude tests Aptitude tests, 1:50–55 academic achievement tests and, 1: 51–52 application of, 1: 54 aptitude as readiness to thrive and, 1: 50 aptitude by treatment interaction approach and, 1: 54 aptitude defined and, 1: 50 aptitude vs. intelligence and, 1: 54 Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery and, 1: 51 Binet Intelligence Test and, 1: 50 career tests and, 1: 52–53 children’s personality inventories and, 1: 54 definition of, 1: 50 Differential Aptitude Test and General Aptitude Test Battery and, 1: 52 Five-Factor Model of personality and, 1: 54 implications of, 1: 54–55 intelligence tests and, 1: 50–51 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and, 1: 53 multiple-choice tests and, 2: 709–711 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and, 1: 53 NEO-Personality Inventory and, 1: 53–54 Personality Inventory and, 1: 53 personality tests and, 1: 53–54 reliability, validity of, 1: 54–55 Scholastic Aptitude Test and, 1: 50 Stanford–Binet test and, 1: 50, 2: 549, 2: 551, 2: 642, 2: 941–942 Strong Interest Inventory and, 1: 50, 1: 52–53 Wechsler intelligence test and, 1: 50 Woodcock-Johnson-III Tests of Cognitive Abilities and, 1: 51 See also Academic achievement tests; Aptitude; Intelligence quotient (IQ); Intelligence tests Arabic proverb, 2: 839 (quote) Arbuthnot, John, 2: 943 Aristotle personality traits and, 2: 781 theoretical vs. productive knowledge and, 2: 963 Aronson, Elliott cooperative learning, racial prejudice and, 1: 188 Jigsaw cooperative learning model and, 1: 190–191, 1: 270, 2: 967 Arora, Tiny, 1: 479, 1: 480 ASCA. See American School Counseling Association (ASCA) ASCD. See Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) ASDs. See Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) Asher, James, 1: 345 Asher, Steven, 2: 915, 2: 916 Asian Americans, 1:55–60 achievement gap and, 1: 17 assimilation, ethnic identity and, 1: 60 child abuse and, 1: 143 Chinese American group and, 1: 55, 1: 58 cultural diversity and, 1: 217 diversity of ethnic groups in, 1: 55, 1: 56, 1: 59 East Asian subgroup of, 1: 56–57, 1: 59, 1: 97 education expectations and, 1: 58–59, 2: 754 ethnic IQ differences and, 1: 97 family influences and, 1: 399–400 Filipino American group and, 1: 57 geographic concentration patterns of, 1: 56 “glass ceiling” effects on, 1: 59–60 Head Start programs and, 1: 462 health disparities of, 1: 19, 1: 222 Hmong group and, 1: 57, 1: 58 identity development issue and, 1: 60 Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 and, 1: 55, 1: 56, 1: 58 immigration history and, 1: 55–56 immigration laws and, 1: 217 Japanese American group and, 1: 56, 1: 58 Korean American group and, 1: 56–57 model minority myth issue and, 1: 58–59 model minority myth issue and, negative effects of, 1: 59–60 National Origins Quota Act of 1924 and, 1: 55, 1: 57 origin regions and, 1: 55 parental expectations and, 2: 754 parenting and, 2: 757 racism against, 1: 58, 1: 59–60 refugee resettlement program and, 1: 57 religion and, 1: 56, 1: 57, 1: 58 South Asian subgroup of, 1: 58 Southeast Asian subgroup of, 1: 55, 1: 57–58 statistics regarding, 1: 55 Vietnamese Americans group and, 1: 57–58 Index ———I-5 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-5 Vietnam War and, 1: 55 See also Immigration Aspberger, Hans, 1: 82 Asperger’s disorder, 1: 82 diagnostic criteria of, 1: 84 gender issues regarding, 1: 85 medical factors and, 1: 86 social interaction impairment and, 1: 84 Assessment, 1:60–65 of ADHD, 1: 79–80 alternative academic assessment and, 1: 25–31 of anxiety disorders, 1: 42–43 behavioral objectives of, 1: 61 behavior modification program and, 1: 95 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning and, 1: 61 construct validity and, 1: 65 content validity and, 1: 65 criterion-referenced tests and, 1: 62 criterion-related validity and, 1: 65 curriculum development and, 1: 231 education decisions and, 1: 59–60 essays, products and, 1: 62 essay tests and, 1: 355–356 gifted, talented students and, 1: 440 Global Assessment of Functioning Scale and, 1: 173 grade-equivalent scores and, 1: 445–446 grading and, 1: 450–453 high-stakes testing and, 1: 465–470 history of, 1: 60 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and, 1: 60 item analysis and, 1: 63 item difficulty, easiness index and, 1: 63 item discrimination and, 1: 63 measurement, evaluation, test vs., 1: 60 mental retardation and, 2: 669 multiple-choice tests and, 1: 355 National Center for Education Statistics and, 1: 10, 1: 249, 1: 447, 2: 703, 2: 704, 2: 719–720 No Child Left Behind Act and, 1: 60 non-referenced testing and, 1: 62 objective tests and, 1: 62 performance assessments and, 1: 62 portfolios, exhibits and, 1: 62 PRAXIS™ and, 1: 129, 2: 807–808 service learning and, 1: 62–63 standardized tests and, 1: 60, 1: 61–62 teacher-made tests and, 1: 61, 1: 62 terminology use and, 1: 60 test reliability and, 1: 63–64 test validity and, 1: 64–65 types of, 1: 61–63 See also Aptitude tests; Evaluation; National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP); Reliability; Validity Assistive technology (AT), 1:66–69 access devices and, 1: 67 accessible software and, 1: 67 alternative input, output devices and, 1: 67 communication devices and, 1: 67 daily living devices and, 1: 68 distance learning and, 1: 262–263 environmental devices and, 1: 68 ergonomic equipment and, 1: 68 hearing devices and, 1: 68 home-workplace adaptations and, 1: 68 importance of, 1: 66 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and, 1: 66 learning, studying devices and, 1: 67–68 mobility, transportation devices and, 1: 68 processing devices and, 1: 67 prosthetic, orthotic devices and, 1: 69 recreation, leisure devices and, 1: 69 seating, positioning devices and, 1: 69 special education technology and, 1: 66 speech disorders and, 2: 927–931 universal design and, 1: 67 vision devices and, 1: 68 Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) educational technology definitions and, 1: 313, 1: 314 Web site of, 1: 321 Association for Media Literacy (Canada), 2: 651 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), 1: 113–114 Association Montessori Internationale (AMI), 2: 679 AT. See Assistive technology (AT) Atchison, Chris, 2: 828 Athletics, 1:69–73 academic integrity and, 1: 69, 1: 70, 1: 72–73 Academic Progress Report and, 1: 72 Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women and, 1: 70–71 athletic capitalism and, 1: 71 athletic celebrity status and, 1: 71 commercialism of, 1: 69, 1: 71, 1: 73 divisions of competition and, 1: 71 extracurricular activities and, 1: 387–392 future directions in, 1: 72–73 graduation rates and, 1: 71–72 higher education role of, 1: 71–72 Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States and, 1: 69–70 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics and, 1: 71 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and, 1: 70, 1: 71 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and, Web site, 1: 73 NCAA Division I institutions and, 1: 71–72 NCAA Division I-AA, I-AAA institutions and, 1: 72 NCAA Division II institutions and, 1: 72 NCAA Division III institutions and, 1: 72 origin, governance of, 1: 69–71 professional sports and, 1: 72 Theodore Roosevelt and, 1: 69 safety issues and, 1: 70 Title IX of Education Amendments and, 1: 70–71, 1: 428 women’s sports governance and, 1: 70–71 Atkinson, John, 2: 693 ATOM. See Australian Teachers of Media (ATOM) Attachment, 1:73–76 affective development and, 1: 73 biological underpinnings and, 1: 75 I-6 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-6 child outcomes relative to, 1: 74–75, 2: 914 child’s social development and, 2: 914 definition of, 1: 73, 1: 76 disorganized attachment type and, 1: 75, 1: 77, 1: 396, 2: 821 divorce and, 1: 272 early child care, education and, 1: 299–300 educator personal experiences, attachment styles and, 1: 74 expressive language vs. cognitive outcomes and, 1: 75 family influences and, 1: 395–396 formation of, 2: 820 implications of, 1: 75–76 “internal working models” of relationships and, 1: 74 parent-child relationship and, 1: 331–332, 1: 395–396, 2: 914 relationships that promote learning and, 1: 73–74, 1: 75–76 “secure readiness to learn” concept and, 1: 75 secure vs. insecure attachment and, 1: 395–396, 2: 820–821, 2: 914 separation-reunion research paradigms of, 1: 74 symbolic play and, 1: 75 theory of mind capacity and, 1: 75 See also Attachment disorder; Parenting styles Attachment disorder, 1:76–78 apparent sensitivity concept and, 1: 77 attachment defined and, 1: 76 attachment theory and, 1: 76–77 behaviors seen in other diagnoses and, 1: 77 childhood mourning and, 1: 76 disorganized attachment type and, 1: 75, 1: 77, 1: 396 holding therapy and, 1: 78 implications of, 1: 78 inhibited vs. disinhibited subtypes of, 1: 76 insecure avoidant attachment and, 1: 77, 1: 396 marital conflict and, 1: 332–333 maternal sensitivity and, 1: 77 parent-child relationship and, 1: 331–332 reactive attachment disorder and, 1: 76, 1: 78 Strange Situation Procedure testing method and, 1: 76–77, 1: 300 terminology use and, 1: 76 treatment of, 1: 77 See also Attachment; Parenting styles Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 1:79–82 academic difficulties and, 1: 80 aggressive-victims risk factors and, 1: 22 anxiety and, 1: 40 assessment of, 1: 79–80 attachment disorder and, 1: 77 behavioral programming treatment of, 1: 80–81 behavior disorders and, 1: 92 behavior modification treatment of, 1: 92 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 160, 1: 161 conduct disorders and, 1: 94, 1: 174 developmental changes in, 1: 80 diagnostic criteria, tools for, 1: 79–80 disciplinary actions and, 1: 250 dyslexia and, 1: 289 executive functioning symptoms and, 1: 79, 1: 81 gender factors and, 1: 79, 1: 80 genetic, neurochemical factors and, 1: 79 halo effect and, 1: 458 impulsive/hyperactive problems and, 1: 79 inattention and, 1: 79 language disorders and, 2: 566, 2: 567 medical vs. behavioral treatment research and, 1: 81 myths regarding, 1: 81 neuroscience research on, 2: 729 prevalence of, 2: 661 psychopharmaceutical treatment of, 1: 80 psychosocial interventions and, 1: 81 self-monitoring techniques and, 1: 81 self-regulation, self-control problems and, 1: 79 time blindness and, 1: 79 Attribution theory of intrinsic motivation, 1: 485–486 academic intrinsic motivation and, 1: 489–490 achievement vs. failure and, 2: 693 criticism of, 2: 693 depression and, 2: 572 dimensions of, 2: 693 motivation and emotion and, 2: 693 Australian Teachers of Media (ATOM), 2: 651 Ausubel, David organization strategies to advance learning and, 1: 229, 2: 964 Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 1:82–88 Asperger’s disorder and, 1: 82–83, 1: 84, 1: 85, 1: 86 Autism Society of America, autism definition and, 1: 84–85 autistic disorder and, 1: 83 behavior disorders and, 1: 92 characteristics of, 1: 82 childhood disintegrative disorder and, 1: 83–84 communication, socialization, behavior problems of, 1: 82, 2: 566 definitions of, 1: 83, 1: 84–85 diversity in symptoms of, 1: 82 early work in, 1: 82 environmental toxins and, 1: 85–86 gender issues regarding, 1: 85 genetics regarding, 1: 86 Greek autos (self) root of, 1: 82 IDEA and, 1: 85, 2: 521 interventions, treatments for, 1: 87 intrapersonal intelligence damage and, 2: 715 medical factors associated with, 1: 86 nature and history of, 1: 82–83 parenting and, 1: 83 pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified and, 1: 83, 1: 84, 1: 86 predisposing factors of, 1: 86 Pre-Elementary Educational Longitudinal Study and, 1: 304 presenting differences in, 1: 82 prevalence of, 1: 85–86 prognosis of, 1: 86 Rett’s disorder and, 1: 83, 1: 84, 1: 86 social understanding development and, 2: 979–980 Autobiographical memory, 1: 338, 1: 348 Aversive stimuli, 1:88–89 antabuse alcoholism treatment example of, 1: 88–89 anxiety learned behavior and, 1: 40 aversion therapy and, 1: 88 avoidance conditioning and, 1: 88 behavior modification through use of, 1: 89 classical, operant conditioning and, 1: 88 Index ———I-7 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-7 definition of, 1: 88 escape learning and, 1: 88 Garcia Effect and, 1: 88 punishing stimuli and, 1: 88 two-stage theory of learning and, 1: 88 Baby and Child Care (Spock), 2: 755 Baer, Donald, 1: 47 Bagwell, Catherine, 1: 410 Baker, C., 1:99 (table) Baker, Linda, 2: 675 Bales, Robert, 2: 723 Ball, Stephan J., 2: 985 Baltes, Paul, 1: 11 Bandura, Albert, 1: 93 Adolescent Aggression (Bandura, Walters) and, 2: 919–920 “Bobo doll” study of, 2: 920 cooperative learning process and, 1: 190 external rewards and, 2: 558 gender behavior development and, 1: 424 observational learning work of, 2: 743–744, 2: 964 overt moral behavior and, 2: 681 reciprocal determinism and, 2: 842–843, 2: 921 self-efficacy and, 2: 892, 2: 964 social cognitive theory, drug abuse and, 1: 281 social cognitive theory of, 2: 1000–1001 Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) and, 2: 920 Social Learning and Personality Development (Bandura, Walters) and, 2: 920 Social Learning Theory (Bandura) and, 2: 920 test anxiety and, 2: 969 vicarious reinforcement and, 2: 1000–1001 Barker, Roger, 2: 723 Barkley, Russell, 1: 177 Barnett, W. Steven, 1: 463 Bar-On, R., 1: 336 Battered woman syndrome, 1: 277 Batterer typologies and treatment, 1: 276–277 Baumeister, Roy, 2: 895 Baumgartner, Lisa, 1: 14 Baumrind, Diana, 2: 762 Beck, Aaron cognitive behavioral therapy and, 1: 160, 2: 869 Beck, Isabel, 2: 516 Beckner, Victoria, 1: 40 BED. See Binge eating disorder (BED) Behavior disorders, 1:91–92 ADHD and, 1: 79–82 behavior modification treatment of, 1: 92 definition of, 1: 91 developmentally appropriate behavior focus and, 1: 91 diagnostic criteria of, 1: 92 discipline and, 1: 249–254 divorce and, 1: 272–273, 1: 398–399 functioning impairment factors and, 1: 91 homelessness and, 1: 493 Individualized Education Program and, 1: 92 outpatient clinic interventions and, 1: 92 social, cultural norms focus and, 1: 91 special education and, 1: 92 Behaviorism adult learning and, 1: 15 competency-based training vs. , 2: 1005 learning and, 2: 574–576, 2: 745–746 social learning theory vs. , 2: 920 vocational education and, 2: 1005–1006 See also Behavior modification; Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning; Stimulus control Behavior modification, 1:92–96 anxiety treatment and, 1: 43 applied behavior analysis and, 1: 44–47 aversive stimuli and, 1: 88–89 behavior disorders and, 1: 92 child abusers and, 1: 146 classical conditioning and, 1: 93, 1: 147–149 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 159–162 conduct disorders and, 1: 177 contingency contracts and, 1: 184–185 decreasing an unwanted behavior and, 1: 93–94 differential reinforcement and, 1: 94 ecological systems theory and, 1: 93 increasing a desired behavior and, 1: 93–94 learning theory technique of, 1: 92 operant conditioning and, 1: 93 Pavlovian conditioning and, 1: 93, 1: 147 positive, negative consequences and, 1: 93 positive, negative punishments and, 1: 94 positive, negative reinforcement and, 1: 94 Premack Principle and, 1: 94, 2: 813–814 program development process: behavior definitions and, 1: 94–95 program development process: functional assessment and, 1: 95 program development process: data collection and, 1: 95 program development process: treatment fidelity, integrity and, 1: 95 program development process: evaluation and, 1: 95 reciprocal determination and, 2: 842–843 reinforcement and, 2: 845–846 reinforcement vs. punishment and, 1: 93, 1: 94 reinforcement vs. reward and, 1: 93–94 social learning theory and, 1: 93 stimulus control and, 2: 947–949 token reinforcement programs and, 2: 981–983 vocational education and, 2: 1005–1006 Belensky, Mary “women’s ways of knowing” and, 1: 12, 2: 684 Bell curve, 1:96–97 The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (Herrnstein, Murray) and, 1: 96, 1: 363 class structure relationship to IQ concept and, 1: 96 IQ, poverty and, 1: 96 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and, 1: 96 nature vs. nurture, intelligence and, 1: 96 normal distribution meaning of, 1: 96 racial, ethnic group intelligence differences and, 1: 96–97 society trends predictions and, 1: 97 Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), 1: 37 Berdiansky, Betty, 2: 791 Berry’s model of acculturation acculturation work of, 2: 503 assimilation and, 1: 9–10, 2: 503–504 integration and, 1: 9, 2: 503–504 I-8 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-8 marginalization and, 2: 503–504 separation and, 1: 9, 2: 503–504 Bettelheim, Bruno, 1: 83 Bijou, Sidney, 2: 723 Bilingual education, 1:97–103 bilingual, multilingual program models and, 1: 98–99, 1:99 (table) bilingual students vs. , 1: 97–98 Canadian-style immersion programs and, 1: 99–100 cultural diversity and, 1: 217–223 deaf students and, 1: 101 dominated language speakers and, 1: 100–101 elite, elective bilingualism and, 1: 99 ESL and, 1: 343–348 European school model and, 1: 100 folk or circumstantial bilingualism and, 1: 100 heritage language defined and, 1: 98 heritage or bilingual maintenance programs and, 1: 101 indigenous languages and, 1: 100–101 integrated bilingual education models and, 1: 101–102 issues, trends in, 1: 102–103 Lau v. Nichols and, 2: 705 mainstream bilingual education and, 1: 99 majority language defined and, 1: 98 minority, dominated languages defined and, 1: 98 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 native language defined and, 1: 98 second language defined and, 1: 98 societal language speakers and, 1: 99–100 transitional bilingual education and, 1: 101 two-way immersion integrated model and, 1: 102 See also Bilingualism; Cultural diversity; Ethnicity and race Bilingualism, 1:103–110, 1: 108–109 acculturation and, 1: 8–9 adult second-language acquisition development of, 1: 108–109 alternation element of individual bilingualism, 1: 105 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 25–31 bicultural experience and, 1: 106 bilingual education and, 1: 97–103 childhood sequential development of, 1: 108 codeswitching within a conversation and, 1: 105, 1: 108, 2: 504 cognitive advantages of, 1: 107 communicative advantages of, 1: 106 community relationships and, 1: 106 conclusions regarding, 1: 109 consecutive or sequential bilingualism and, 1: 107 cross-linguistic influence element of individual bilingualism, 1: 105–106 cultural advantages of, 1: 106–107 cultural diversity and, 1: 217–223 definitions regarding, 1: 103–106 degree element of individual bilingualism, 1: 104 developmental factors in, 1: 109 disadvantages of, 1: 107 duration, frequency, pressure variables in, 1: 105 economic, employment opportunities and, 1: 106–107 ESL and, 1: 343–348 extended family relationships and, 1: 106 function element of individual bilingualism, 1: 104–105 globalization impact and, 1: 103, 1: 106–107 home vs. community languages and, 1: 105 individual bilingualism and, 1: 103–106 language sensitivity and, 1: 106 Lau v. Nichols and, 2: 705 monolingual or fractional view of bilinguals and, 1: 104 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 multiple first language acquisition and, 1: 107–108 “one person, one language” principle and, 1: 105, 1: 107 parental relationships and, 1: 106 productive competence and, 1: 104 sequential bilingualism and, 1: 108–109 simultaneous development of, 1: 107–108 transnational communication and, 1: 106 See also Bilingual education; Cultural diversity; Ethnicity and race; Immigration Binet, Alfred, 2: 550 intelligence test measurement and, 1: 50, 2: 536–537, 2: 538, 2: 541, 2: 545, 2: 549, 2: 550, 2: 642, 2: 781 Binge eating disorder (BED), 1: 312–313 Biringen, Zeynep, 1: 77 Black Americans. See African Americans Blanger, Paul, 2: 607 Blasi, Augusto, 2: 685 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 1:110–111 achievement tests and, 1: 111 analysis objective and, 1: 110–111 application objective and, 1: 110 comprehensive objective and, 1: 110 curriculum development influenced by, 1: 229, 1: 230, 1: 441 early years, learning and, 1: 439 environment importance and, 1: 61 evaluation objective and, 1: 111 impact of, 1: 111 instructional objectives and, 2: 533, 2: 534 knowledge defined in, 1: 110 learning objectives and, 2: 592 multiple-choice tests and, 2: 709–711 rubrics and, 2: 859–860 synthesis objective and, 1: 111 Blueler, Eugene, 1: 82 BN. See Bulimia nervosa (BN) Bond, T. G., 1: 163 Boothroyd, Roger, 2: 710 Borderline personality disorder, 1: 275 Bornstein, Kate, 1: 37 Bower, Gordon all-or-none learning models and, 1: 186 memory research of, 2: 623 Bowlby, John attachment theory work of, 1: 76, 1: 331–332, 2: 820, 2: 914 Boyatzis, Richard, 1: 336 Bradshaw, Ted, 2: 804–805 Braine, Martin, 1: 235 Brain-relevant education, 1:111–119 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and, 1: 113–114 biology of learning and, 1: 111 brain-based learning and, 1: 111 brain-friendly teaching, learning and, 1: 118 computerized axial tomography (CT, CAT scan) and, 1: 112 dualistic relationships in, 1: 116 Index ———I-9 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-9 education-related brain science themes and, 1: 116–118 electroencephalography (EEG) and, 1: 112 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 1: 112 Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education and, 1: 114 holistic brain nurture and, 1: 116, 1: 117–118 interconnected brain functions and, 1: 116–117, 1:117 (figure) International Mind, Brain and Education Society, 1: 114 Learning and the Brain conferences and, 1: 114 Learning Brain Expo and, 1: 114 macro-, micro-intersystem voices on the brain and, 1: 114–115, 1:115 (figure) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and, 1: 112 magnetoencephalography (MEG) and, 1: 112 4MAT teaching and learning model of, 1: 118 misuse of scientific data and, 1: 113 motor development and, 2: 696–702 myelination and, 2: 717 NCLB and, 1: 115 neural plasticity concept and, 1: 113 neuropsychology, biological psychology and, 1: 111 neuroscience and, 2: 724–729 positron-emission tomography (PET) and, 1: 112 reductionist vs. constructivist and, 1: 115–116 science of cognition and, 1: 112 theme connectivity and, 1: 116–117, 1:117 (figure) theory, research vs. classroom practice and, 1: 114–115 University of California, Berkeley and, 1: 113 Braly, Kenneth, 2: 945 Bransford, John, 2: 658 Braude, Jacob, 1: 91 (quote) Briringen, Zeynep, 1: 299 Brisk, M. E., 1:99 (table) Brockett, Ralph, 1: 14 Bronfenbrenner, Uri biological learning potential work of, 2: 541 ecological systems theory work of, 1: 93, 2: 852 Head Start Program and, 2: 856 intellectual dispositions work of, 2: 541 Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne parenting behavior research of, 2: 758 poverty, education outcomes research work of, 2: 806 Brown, H. Douglas, 1: 345 Brown, Matt, 1: 40 Brown, R., 1: 404–405 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 1: 17, 1: 18, 2: 705 Bruer, John T., 1: 112–113 Bruner, Jerome discovery learning environments and, 1: 255–256, 1: 439, 2: 964 learning models of, 1: 229, 2: 964 scaffolding and, 2: 860 BSRI. See Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) Buck, Pearl S., 1: 415 (quote) Bühler, Charlotte, 1: 10 Bulimia nervosa (BN), 1: 308–309 anorexia nervosa and, 1: 310 binge eating disorder and, 1: 308, 1: 309, 1: 313 body shape and weight misperceptions and, 1: 308, 2: 796 DSM classification of, 1: 308 dual-pathway model of, 1: 312 family, twin studies of, 1: 310 gender differences in, 1: 309 history of, 1: 309 inappropriate compensatory behaviors and, 1: 308, 1: 309 loss of control, negative emotions and, 1: 308 prevention and treatment of, 1: 312 prognosis of, 1: 310 purging, nonpurging subtypes of, 1: 309 Bullying, 1:119–124 active vs. passive victims and, 2: 917 bully and target relationship and, 1: 119, 1: 412 Bullying Prevention Program and, 1: 123–124 child social development and, 2: 917 consequences of, 1: 122, 2: 917 contexts of, 1: 120 coping strategies and, 1: 121 definition of, 1: 119, 2: 884 developmental factors in, 1: 123 disabled people and, 1: 121 forms of, 1: 120 gender-based bullying and, 1: 120, 1: 121 gender differences in, 1: 119, 1: 123 harassment, teasing and, 1: 120 identifying bullies and, 1: 121–122 Internet tool of, 1: 120 intervention, prevention of, 1: 123–124 language disorder victims of, 2: 569 overall student behavior and, 2:883 (figure), 2: 884 overt vs. covert forms of, 1: 120 overweight children and, 2: 740 physical, verbal, social aggression and, 1: 119 power abuse and, 1: 119 prevalence of, 1: 122–123, 2: 884 reasons for, 1: 122 relational aggression and, 1: 120 risk factors of, 1: 121 school friendships and, 1: 409 sexual harassment and, 1: 120, 1: 121, 2: 884 sexual orientation and, 2: 901 social aggression and, 1: 119, 1: 120, 1: 123, 2: 884 social development and, 2: 917 social skills deficit model of, 1: 121 status from, 1: 119 suicide behavior and, 1: 122, 1: 123 verbal bullying and, 1: 119, 1: 120, 1: 123 victims of, 1: 120–121, 2: 884 witness involvement in, 1: 122 workplace bullying and, 1: 119 See also School violence and disruption Bus, A. G., 1: 74 Butler, Judith, 1: 37–38, 1: 431 Bymes, D., 1: 448 Caffarella, Rosemary, 1: 14 Caine, Geoffrey, 1: 113 Caine, Renate, 1: 113 Calculator use, 1:125–127 advanced hand held tools and, 1: 126 educational psychology research use of, 1: 125–126 graphing calculators, algorithms and, 1: 125–126 history of, 1: 125 residuals and, 1: 126, 1: 127 (figure) I-10 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-10 scatterplot graph and, 1: 126, 1: 126 (figure) statistical research use of, 1: 125 Caldwell, Bette, 1: 60 Cameron, Judy intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation work of, 2: 557, 2: 558 perceived competence importance and, 2: 560 CAMI. See Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAIMI) Campbell, Donald, 1: 376 Canale, Michael, 1: 343, 1: 346 Capra, Fritjof, 1: 287 Carlson, Dennis L., 2: 899 Carmichael, Leonard, 1: 60 Carolina Abecedarian Project, 1: 302 Carpenter, Patricia, 2: 515 Carroll, John Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence and, 2: 550 psychometric human abilities studies of, 2: 537 three-stratum intelligence theory of, 2: 538, 2: 550 Caruso, D., 1: 336, 1: 337 Case studies, 1:127–128 advantages using, 1: 127–128 disadvantages using, 1: 128 Freud’s work in, 1: 128 Cassidy, Jude, 2: 761 Castaneda, Alfredo cultural and cognitive styles flexibility theory of, 1: 153, 1: 154 cultural and individual democracy concept and, 1: 155 Cattell, James psychological testing work of, 2: 642, 2: 781 Cattell, Raymond Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence and, 2: 550 Culture Fair intelligence test and, 1: 215 fluid and crystallized intelligence and, 1: 12, 1: 213, 1: 214, 2: 537, 2: 550 personality traits work of, 2: 781, 2: 784 Sixteen Personality Factor Qustionnaire, 2: 784 Catts, Hugh, 2: 568 Caughlan, Samantha, 2: 986 Caviness, Linda Bryant, 1: 117 CBA (curriculum-based assessment). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) CBA-ID (curriculum-based assessment for instructional design). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) CBE (curriculum-based evaluation). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) CBM. See Cognitive behavior modification (CBM); Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) CBM-R (curriculum-based measurement, oral reading fluency). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) Ceci, Stephen, 2: 541 Centers for Substance Abuse and Prevention, 2: 652 Certification, 1:128–130 charter schools and, 1: 131–132 INTASC’s 10 principles and, 1: 129 loopholes in state requirements and, 1: 129 NBPTS core propositions, standards and, 1: 129 NCLB and, 1: 129 standardized testing, PRAXIS™and, 1: 129, 2: 807–808 state departments of education and, 1: 128–129 Chalmbers, Robert, 2: 804 Chapman, Michael, 2: 802 Charter schools, 1:130–136 accountability and, 1: 132, 1: 133–134 achieving scale in, 1: 135–136 autonomy of, 1: 131, 1: 132, 1: 134 certification and, 1: 131–132 criticism of school choice and, 1: 131 curriculum innovation and, 1: 132 diversity in, 1: 132 educational outcomes in, 1: 132–133 Education Management Organization (EMO) and, 1: 134, 1: 135 funding of, 1: 133–134 future of, 1: 136 growth of, 1: 133 innovation in, 1: 131–132 limited information regarding, 1: 132 magnet schools and, 1: 132 National Charter School Research Project and, 1: 133 NCLB and, 1: 134, 2: 732 origins of concept and, 1: 130 parental participation in, 2: 760 philanthropist funding and, 1: 134–135 popularity of, 1: 131 public funds and, 1: 130 school choice concept and, 1: 130–131 special needs children in, 1: 132 transportation, access problems and, 1: 132 vouchers and, 2: 1009 Chater, Nick, 1: 235 Cheating, 1:136–142 academic integrity strategies and, 1: 140–141 achievement goal theory and, 1: 139 age, marital status factors and, 1: 138 Center for Academic Integrity and, 1: 141 conventional vs. Internet-based and, 1: 137 definitions, typologies of, 1: 136–137 demographics of, 1: 137–138 deontic vs. responsibility judgment and, 1: 138–139 high- vs. low-achieving students and, 1: 138 in-class test cheating and, 1: 137, 1: 141 moral character and, 1: 138 morality, motivation, misconduct and, 1: 138–140 peer norms and, 1: 140 plagiarism and, 1: 137, 1: 141 power of the situation and, 1: 140 prevalence of, statistics regarding, 1: 137 Report Card on the Ethics of American Youth and, 1: 137 social, situational contexts and, 1: 140 subject matter factors and, 1: 140 teacher incompetence justification of, 1: 139, 1: 140 Chen, Zhe, 1: 257 Cheng, Patricia, 1: 235 Chess, Stella goodness of fit concept of, 1: 174–175 temperament research of, 1: 330 Chicago Child-Parent Centers, 1: 302 Chicanas/os. See Hispanic Americans Child abuse, 1:142–147 the abusers and, 1: 143–144 abusers interventions and, 1: 146 Index ———I-11 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-11 Child Maltreatment Report of 2004 and, 1: 143 control, power elements of, 1: 144 cultural influences and, 1: 143 definitions regarding, 1: 142 emotional abuse and, 1: 143, 1: 144–145 family assessment and, 1: 145–146 Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act and, 1: 142 future considerations regarding, 1: 147 National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect and, 1: 142 neglect and, 1: 142, 1: 143 by parents, families, 1: 398 physical abuse and, 1: 143, 1: 144 poverty and, 1: 142, 1: 144 prevalence of, 1: 142 prevention, treatment of, 1: 145–147 psychological effects on victims and, 1: 144–145 reporting of, 1: 145 risk factors of, 1: 142 sexual abuse and, 1: 143, 1: 144–145 suicide behavior and, 2: 954, 2: 955, 2: 956 Type I, Type II traumas and, 1: 144 types of, 1: 143 victim interventions and, 1: 146–147 Childhood disintegrative disorder, 1: 83–84 Children Act 2004 (United Kingdom), 1: 477, 1: 484 Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAIMI), 1: 485, 1: 486, 1: 488, 1: 490 Children’s Defense Fund, 2: 756–757 Chinese proverb, 2: 961 Chomsky, Noam, 2: 566 CI. See Confidence interval (CI) CIRC. See Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) cooperative learning model Claparede, Edouard, 2: 657 Clark, Barbara, 1: 439 Clark, Mamie, 2: 856 Clark, Richard, 1: 319 Classical conditioning, 1:147–149 acquisition occurrence and, 1: 148 anxiety learned behavior and, 1: 40 aversive stimuli and, 1: 88–89 behavior modification and, 1: 93 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 159–162 conditioned, unconditioned stimulus and, 1: 148 decreasing returns curve in, 1: 148 habituation and, 1: 455–458 higher-order conditioning and, 1: 149 instrumental, operant conditioning and, 1: 149 learning and, 2: 574–575 operant conditioning and, 2: 749–751 Pavlovian conditioning and, 1: 93, 1: 147, 2: 574–575, 2: 749, 2: 947, 2: 963 Premack Principle and, 2: 813–814 reinforcement and, 2: 749, 2: 845–846 secondary reinforcers and, 1: 149 stimulus control and, 2: 947–949 stimulus intensity and, 1: 148–149 teaching strategy of, 2: 963 timing factors in, 1: 148 unconditional stimulus-response and, 2: 574 unconditioned response and, 2: 574 Classification of Men According to Their Natural Gifts (Galton), 2: 781 Clinchy, Blythe, 1: 12 Cliques, 1:149–152 benefits of, 1: 152 changes in over time and, 1: 150 criteria exhibited by, 1: 149 definitions regarding, 1: 149 disadvantages of, 1: 152 gender differences in, 1: 150 hierarchy of, 1: 152 joining methods and, 1: 150–151 maintaining status in, 1: 151 peer grouping of crowds vs. , 1: 149 types of group members in, 1: 151–152 types of individuals in and out of, 1: 150 Rosalind Wiseman’s work regarding, 1: 150–151 See also Gangs; Peer influences Code of Federal Regulations, Part 46, 1: 360 Cognitive and cultural styles, 1:152–158 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 25–31 assessment and testing and, 1: 157–158 biocognitive cognitive style and, 1: 154 biocognitive personality types and, 1: 155 classroom learning behaviors and, 1:154 (table) cognitive democracy concept and, 1: 155 cognitive personality styles and, 1: 153 cognitive style components and, 1: 154 cultural component of learning styles and, 1: 152 cultural diversity and, 1: 217–223 curricula for different cultural styles and, 1: 156 diverse and global society impact on, 1: 158 ethnic/racial group drop out rates and, 1: 157 field-i

bundet

ndependence/dependence and, 1: 402–403 field independent cognitive style and, 1: 154 field sensitive cognitive style and, 1: 154 flexibility in, 1: 155–157, 1: 158 intelligence and, 1: 221–223 match-mismatch process and, 1: 156–157 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 NCLB and, 1: 157 socialization, educational practices of parents and, 1: 153–154 teacher training in cultural style diversity and, 1: 155 teaching respect for cultural differences, cross-ethnic cooperation and, 1: 156 “teaching to the test” and, 1: 157–158 technology utilization and, 1: 157 testing to match learner cultural styles and, 1: 156 traditionalism-modernism continuum and, 1: 153, 1:153 (table) voucher systems and, 1: 158 Cognitive behavior modification (CBM), 1:159–162 anxiety treatment and, 1: 43 applied behavior analysis and, 1: 44–47 automatic thoughts and, 1: 160 aversive stimuli and, 1: 89 behavioral model vs. , 1: 159 benefits of, 1: 161 bulimia nervosa and, 1: 312 cognitive restructuring and, 1: 160 cognitive theory and, 1: 159 I-12 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-12 conduct disorders and, 1: 177 definition, description of, 1: 159–160 disorders treated by, 1: 160 domestic violence and, 1: 276, 1: 277 educational technology and, 1: 315 evidence-based model for practice and, 1: 159 implementation tips and, 1: 161 operant conditioning and, 1: 159 problem solving and, 1: 160–161 psychodynamic therapy vs. , 1: 161 purpose of, 1: 160 relaxation techniques and, 1: 161, 1: 177 schemas, core beliefs and, 1: 160, 1: 161, 2: 864–866 school counseling and, 2: 869 self-instruction and, 1: 159, 1: 161 self-speech, self-talk internal dialogue and, 1: 159 verbal mediation and, 1: 160 See also Behavior modification Cognitive development and school readiness, 1:162–164 acceleration programs and, 1: 4 ADHD and, 1: 80 age of child and, 1: 163 attachment and, 1: 73–76 attachment disorder and, 1: 76–78 childhood friendships and, 1: 409–410 discovered vs. constructed knowledge and, 1: 15 disorganized attachment type and, 1: 75 divorce effects and, 1: 272–273 dualistic vs. relativistic thinking and, 1: 15 equalibration and, 1: 350–351 family influences and, 1: 396–397 high school science readiness and, 1: 162–163 intellectual development scheme and, 1: 15 malnutrition and, 2: 630–632 measurement of cognitive development and, 2: 647–649 moral development and, 2: 681–686 myelination and, 2: 717 perceptual development and, 2: 774–780 William Perry’s work in, 1: 15 Piaget’s cognitive development stages and, 1: 162 preschool moral education and, 1: 163 school readiness and, 2: 876–877 situationed cognition and, 1: 15 social/psychomotor indicators and, 1: 163 Thinking Science intervention and, 1: 162 year one readiness and, 1: 163 See also Acceleration; Head Start; School readiness Cognitive discrepancy theories of intrinsic motivation, 1: 485, 1: 489 Cognitive field theory gifted, talented student curriculum and, 1: 440 Cognitive view of learning, 1:164–165 adult learning and, 1: 14–15 cognitive and cultural styles and, 1: 152–157 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 159–162 cognitive evaluation theory and, 1: 4, 2: 557–560 cognitive interference and, 2: 968 cognitive processing models of learning style and, 2: 599–601 cognitive variables affecting learning and, 1: 164 conservation and, 1: 181–182 constructivism and, 1: 182–183 creativity and, 1: 194–200 definitions regarding, 1: 164 discovery learning and, 1: 255–258 emotion and, 2: 695–696 gender differences, identity and, 1: 424 gender differences in, 1: 423 gender schema theory and, 1: 424 generative learning theory and, 1: 189 goal-directed learning and, 1: 164 goals and, 1: 443 intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation and, 2: 555–560 language disorders and, 2: 568 learning style and, 2: 597–602 life-long learning and, 2: 605–608 literacy skills and, 2: 511–512 malnutrition and, 2: 630–632 measurement of cognitive development and, 2: 647–648 metacognition and, 1: 164, 2: 673–676 Montessori schools and, 2: 678–681 moods and, 2: 695 motivation and emotion factors and, 1: 164 object permanence and, 2: 742–743 perceptual development and, 2: 774–780 Perry’s cognitive development stages and, 2: 607 phonics and, 2: 790–792 schemas and, 2: 864–866 self-management factors and, 1: 164–165 stereotypes and, 2: 946 vocational education and, 2: 1006 See also Adult learning; Intelligence and intellectual development; Intelligence quotient (IQ); Intelligence tests; Learning; Learning disabilities Cohen, Rosalie, 1: 221–222 Coie, John, 2: 916 Coleman, James social capital work of, 2: 754 tracking and, 2: 983 Communication disorders, 1:165–170 aphasia, dysphasia disorders and, 1: 167 assistive technology devices and, 1: 67 developmental stuttering and, 1: 169 dysarthrias, 1: 169–170 feedback signals and, 1: 166 fluency disorders and, 1: 169 hearing and speech perception and, 1: 165, 1: 167–168 hearing loss and, 1: 168, 2: 568 IDEA and, 2: 521 language disorders and, 1: 168–169, 2: 565–570 language processing and the brain and, 1: 167 linguistic intelligence and, 2: 712–713 motor plans, equivalence and, 1: 166 paralinguistic changes and, 1: 166 professional training and, 1: 170 prosodic changes and, 1: 166 speech and language development and, 1: 168 speech communication and, 1: 165 speech disorders and, 2: 927–931 speech production process and, 1: 165–167 writing, drawing motor development and, 2: 701 Community-Based Abstinence Education, 1: 3 Competence/mastery theories of intrinsic motivation, 1: 485, 1: 489, 2: 689 Index ———I-13 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-13 Competition, 1:170–172 biological factors in, 1: 170 conflict and, 1: 180–181 cultural norms affecting, 1: 171 developmental factors in, 1: 171 dominance hierarchy and, 1: 171–172 extracurricular activities and, 1: 387–392 sexual factors in, 1: 170–171 social structure factors in, 1: 171 Computerized axial tomography (CT, CAT scan), 1: 112 The Condition of Education (NCES), 2: 721–722 Conduct disorders, 1:172–178 antisocial personality disorder, 1: 173 anxiety, 1: 40 attachment disorder, 1: 77 cognitive behavioral therapy for, 1: 177 conduct disorder, 1: 173 cultural factors and, 1: 173 diagnosis difficulties and, 1: 172 disciplinary actions and, 1: 250 dysfunctional communication and, 1: 174 educational institution services and, 1: 175 emotional self-regulation and, 1: 174 environmental structure changes and, 1: 176–177 gender differences in, 1: 175 IDEA and, 1: 175 impairment measurement and, 1: 173 individual, small group interventions for, 1: 177 interpersonal situation factors and, 1: 173 negative familial behavior patterns and, 1: 174 oppositional defiant disorder, 1: 173 parent training intervention and, 1: 177 positive behavioral support and, 1: 176 psychopharmacology intervention and, 1: 177–178 quality of life and, 1: 172 resource costs and, 1: 175 response-to-intervention model and, 1: 175 social learning curriculum and, 1: 177 socioemotional evaluation intervention and, 1: 175–176 systemic interventions for, 1: 176 temperament and, 1: 174–175 understanding and identification of, 1: 172–173 See also Aggression; Bullying; Peer influences; School violence and disruption Confidence interval (CI), 1:178–179 lower and upper bounds of, 1: 178 magnitude of error and, 1: 178 research hypotheses test using, 1: 179 sample data, range of values and, 1: 178 standard error and, 1: 179 Conflict, 1:180–181 bullying and, 1: 119–124 competition and, 1: 170–172 conflict management skills and, 1: 180 disagreements element of, 1: 180 functional vs. dysfunctional type of, 1: 180 interdependence of parties in, 1: 180 management strategies of, 1: 180–181 management strategies of, friendship and, 1: 410 of peer relationships, 1: 412 social phenomenon concept of, 1: 180 students’ rights and, 2: 949–953 third-party management processes and, 1: 181 Conservation, 1:181–182 definition of, 1: 181 identity vs. equivalence forms of, 1: 182 Piaget’s work regarding, 1: 181–182 pre-operational vs. concrete operations development stage and, 1: 182 Constructivism, 1:182–183 apprenticeship learning and, 1: 183 assessment and, 1: 182–183 creativity, knowledge construction and, 1: 200 creativity and, 1: 194–200 Dewey’s inductionist constructivism and, 1: 183 discovery learning and, 1: 255–258 dynamical systems theory and, 1: 285 educational technology and, 1: 315 equalibration and, 1: 350–351 gender as a social construct and, 1: 37 knowledge as language and, 1: 183 knowledge definitions and, 1: 183 learners constructing knowledge and, 1: 229 openness and, 1: 182 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and, 1: 182–183, 2: 285, 2: 798, 2: 799 postmodern constructivism and, 1: 183 preschool moral education and, 1: 163 reductionism vs. , brain-relevant education and, 1: 114–115 social constructivism and, 1: 183 student ideas, contributions and, 1: 324 transmission of knowledge teaching vs. , 1: 182 Contingency contracts, 1:184–185 advantages of using, 1: 184 behavioral management technique of, 1: 184 educational settings and, 1: 184–185 effectiveness components of, 1: 184 effectivenss procedures and, 1: 184 home-school notes usage and, 1: 185 instructional objectives and, 2: 533–536 limitations of, 1: 185 self-contracts and, 1: 185 task, reward, task reward elements of, 1: 184 Continuity and discontinuity in learning, 1:185–187 all-or-none learning models and, 1: 186 cognitive lifespan development and, 1: 186–187 definitions regarding, 1: 185 dynamical systems and, 1: 285–288 empirical and theoretical research on, 1: 185–186 mathematical models of psychological processes and learning research on, 1: 186 nature of the task and, 1: 186 “stationarity” principle and, 1: 186 Cooper, Harris homework research by, 1: 494, 1: 496 Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) cooperative learning model, 1: 192 Cooperative learning, 1:187–193 academic outcomes of, 1: 188–189 content-specific models of, 1: 189 I-14 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-14 Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) learning method and, 1: 192 definitions regarding, 1: 187 elaborative explanation dialogue and, 1: 189 generative learning theory and, 1: 189 group goal, individual accountability in, 1: 187 Group Investigation learning method and, 1: 188, 1: 191 group work vs. , 1: 187 Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (GRPQ) learning method and, 1: 191–192 Jigsaw learning method and, 1: 188, 1: 190–191, 2: 967 learning communities and, 2: 579–584 Learning Together learning method and, 1: 188, 1: 191 peer-assisted learning and, 2: 767–768 Piagetian learning theory and, 1: 190 racial prejudice reduction and, 1: 188 Reciprocal Teaching learning method and, 1: 192 responsibility for learning transfer in, 1: 187 social outcomes of, 1: 188 sociocognitive learning theory and, 1: 190 sociocultural learning theory and, 1: 189–190 Student Team Achievement Division (STAD) learning method and, 1: 188, 1: 191 Student Team Reading and Writing model of, 1: 192 Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) learning method and, 1: 192–193 Teams Game Tournament (TGT) learning method and, 1: 191 See also Peer influences Cornell, David, 2: 885 Cornell, Stephen, 1: 363 Correlation, 1:193–194 correlational research and, 1: 373 criterion variable and, 1: 375 meta-analysis and, 2: 672–673 natural experiment design and, 1: 375 nonparametric correlation statistic and, 1: 194 partial correlation and, 1: 194 Pearson’s correlation and, 1: 193 predictor variable and, 1: 375 recision vs. relevance and, 1: 373 relationship between pairs of variables and, 1: 193 scatterplot and, 1: 193 t -test statistic and, 1: 193 Cosmides, Leda, 1: 235 Cox, Barbara, 1: 155 Craik, F. I. T., 2: 623 Craik, Fergus, 1: 186–187 Cramer, Stanley, 2: 869 CR-CBA (criterion-referenced curriculum-based assessment). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) Creativity, 1:194–200 adaptiveness criterion and, 1: 194–195 aptitude-process-environment contexts and, 1: 199 the arts and, 1: 195–196 biographical or case study research approach and, 1: 198 biometric research methods and, 1: 198 definition of, 1: 194 developmental perspective on, 1: 196 divergent thinking and, 1: 267–268 educational psychology and, 1: 200 eminence misconception and, 1: 196–197 enhancement empirical theme and, 1: 199–200 experimental research method and, 1: 198 generality vs. specificity theme and, 1: 198–199 historiometric research approach and, 1: 198 knowledge construction and, 1: 200 multidisciplinary creativity research, scholarly journals of, 1: 196 negative deviance misconception and, 1: 195 psychometric research method and, 1: 197–198 psychometric theoretic perspective of, 1: 197 research regarding, 1: 197–198 Schoolwide Enrichment Model, creativity enhancement and, 1: 199 sociocultural context and, 1: 195 system theories and, 1: 197 Criterion-referenced testing, 1:200–206 absolute comparison feature of, 1: 201 alignment and validity of, 1: 202–203 Bookmark standard-setting method and, 1: 204 classroom instruction use of, 1: 204–205 Code of Fair Testing Practices and, 1: 205 cut-scores and, 1: 204 definition of, 1: 200–201 design of items on, 1: 201 domain for, 1: 201 high-stakes testing and, 1: 465–470 large-scale CRT and, 1: 202–204 letter grades and, 1: 205 mainstreaming, inclusion and, 2: 629–630 multiple-choice tests and, 2: 709–711 NCLB and, 1: 202, 1: 203 norm-referenced tests and, 1: 201, 2: 734–738 objective-references and, 1: 201 performance levels and, 1: 203 program evaluation using, 1: 202 purposes for using, 1: 202 scores produced by, 1: 201 scoring interpretation of, 2: 644 selection and use guidelines for, 1: 205 self-referencing framework vs. , 1: 204–205 standardized tests and, 2: 938–939 standards-based interpretation and, 2: 734 standard setting and, 1: 203–204 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing and, 1: 205, 1: 469, 2: 995 summative, formative feedback from, 1: 204 Critical race theory, 1: 365 Crocker, Jennifer, 2: 896 Cronbach, Lee J., 2: 710 Cross, Patricia learning communities research of, 2: 580, 2: 581–582 Cross-sectional research, 1:206–213 adjusted R and, 1: 207 aggregation and, 1: 210–211, 1:211 (figure) cluster sampling and, 1: 208 common method variance and, 1: 210 complete, partial moderation and, 1: 210 complete mediation and, 1: 209 conditional mean imputation and, 1: 207 conditions for establishing causality and, 1: 206 controlled variables and, 1: 211 convergent vs. discriminant validity and, 1: 213 cross-validation and, 1: 207 Index ———I-15 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-15 experimental designs and, 1: 212, 1: 376, 1: 378 joint, partial causation by a third variable and, 1: 210 listwise, pairwise deletion and, 1: 207 longitudinal research and, 1: 206, 2: 616–619 maximum likelihood, multiple imputation methods and, 1: 207 measured, manipulated, controlled, randomized, omitted variables and, 1: 211 measures of association and, 1: 206–207 multiple R 2 comparisons and, 1: 210 nonexperimental designs and, 1: 212–213, 1:212 (table) nonproportionate stratified sampling and, 1: 208 nonspuriousness and, 1: 209–210 omitted variables and, 1: 211 overfitting, shrinkage problems and, 1: 207 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient and, 1: 205 plausible rival hypotheses and, 1: 209 proportionate stratified sampling and, 1: 208 quasi-experimental designs and, 1: 212, 1: 376, 2: 836–838 randomized variables and, 1: 211 random selection and, 1: 208 reliable covariation and, 1: 205–209 reverse, reciprocal causation and, 1: 209, 1:209 (figure) sample credibility scale and, 1: 212 (table) sample frame and, 1: 208 sample representativeness and, 1: 208–209 sample size and, 1: 207 statistical significance and, 1: 207 temporal ordering and, 1: 205 truncated samples and, 1: 209 unconditional mean and, 1: 207 unit of observation, unit of analysis and, 1: 210 See also Longitudinal research Crystallized intelligence ( g c ), 1:213–216 cultural factors, testing and, 1: 214–215 developmental factors and, 1: 214 emotional intelligence and, 1: 334–337 factorial status of, 1: 215 fluid intelligence and, 1: 213, 1: 406–407, 2: 537, 2: 550 general intelligence and, 1: 213, 2: 537 heredity and, 1: 214 measurement of, 1: 214–215, 1: 407 motivation and, 1: 214 personality and, 1: 214 physiological evidence of, 1: 214 psychometric evidence of, 1: 213–214 spatial test measurement and, 1: 215 verbal intelligence measurement and, 1: 215 See also Adult learning Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi flow concept work of, 1: 118, 1: 199 systems theory of creativity and, 1: 196 Cultural deficit model, 1:216–217 academic underachievement and, 1: 216 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 criticisms of, 1: 216, 1: 224–225 culturally diverse, cultural difference model vs. , 1: 216 cultural values, family dysfunction and, 1: 216 diversity and, 1: 268–270 evolution of thinking about difference and, 1: 216 explanation of, 1: 216 Head Start programs and, 1: 216 intelligence tests and, 2: 551, 2: 553 negative effects of, 1: 216 social, educational implications of, 1: 216–217, 1: 224–225, 1: 365 social class, classicism and, 2: 908–912 See also Ethnicity and race Cultural diversity, 1:217–223 achievement gap and, 1: 222 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 bilingual education and, 1: 97–103 bilingualism and, 1: 106–107 celebration of as a strength and, 1: 217 cultural conflict case example and, 1: 219 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217 cultural plurality and, 1: 217 Deaf Culture and, 1: 219, 1: 222 definition of, 1: 217 discrimination and, 1: 259–260 diversity and, 1: 268–270 ethnicity vs. culture and, 1: 217–218 family influences and, 1: 399–400 gifted and talented curriculum and, 1: 441 health disparities and, 1: 19, 1: 222 Hispanic, Latino/a designation and, 1: 218 immigration laws and, 1: 217 inclusion of disabled students and, 2: 511 intelligence, cognitive style and, 1: 221–222 language diversity and, 1: 218 linguistic bias and, 1: 221 mainstreaming and, 2: 628 minority group definition and, 1: 218 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 multiple intelligences concept and, 1: 221–222 nationality as ethnic group and, 1: 218 origin of diversity and, 1: 217 political incorrectness, covert prejudice and, 1: 220 professional case examples and, 1: 219–220 professional service delivery and, 1: 223 religious groups as ethnic groups and, 1: 218 sexual orientation and, 1: 218 “shared knowledge” concept and, 1: 221 situational bias and, 1: 221 social class, classicism and, 2: 908–912 terminology use and, 1: 217–219 test bias and, 1: 220–221 tracking and, 2: 986 value bias and, 1: 221 white privilege case example and, 1: 220 women as minority group and, 1: 218 See also African Americans; American Indians and Alaska Natives; Cognitive and cultural styles; Culture; Diversity; Ethnicity and race; Hispanic Americans; Immigration; Multicultural classrooms Cultural style. See Cognitive and cultural styles; Culture; Ethnicity and race Culture, 1:223–228 achievement gap misconceptions and, 1: 224 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 I-16 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-16 broad definitions complexity and, 1: 225–227 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217, 1: 224–225 cultural diversity and, 1: 217–223 definitions regarding, 1: 223 developmental processes and, 1: 227–228 diversity and, 1: 268–270 educational psychology and, 1: 223–224 ethnicity as foundation of diversity among racial categories and, 1: 225 ethnicity vs. culture and, 1: 217–218 ethnography and, 1: 366–367 family influences and, 1: 399–400 gender differences and, 1: 433–434 individuals impacting on, 1: 224 individuals living culture and, 1: 225 intragroup heterogeneity and, 1: 226 intrapersonal intelligence and, 2: 714–715 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 NCLB, learning culture and, 1: 225 race, ethnicity and, 1: 224–225 race as socially constructed variable and, 1: 225 research issues regarding, 1: 225–226, 1: 227–228 social development and, 2: 918 sociological construct within contexts and, 1: 223–224 See also Cognitive and cultural styles; Ethnicity and race Cummings, E. Mark, 1: 332–333, 2: 914 Cummins, Jim, 1: 347 Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) Stanley Deno’s work on, 1: 26 dynamic indicators of basic skills and, 1: 26 oral-reading fluency and, 1: 26 skill domains of, 1: 26 standardized procedure of, 1: 26 summative vs. formative assessments and, 1: 26–27 Curriculum development, 1:228–234 abstinence education and, 1: 1–4 assessment/evaluation element of, 1: 231 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning and, 1: 110–111, 1: 229 content element of, 1: 230–231 definitions regarding, 1: 228 educational technology and, 1: 313–321 for gifted and talented students, 1: 440–442 interaction, dynamic model of, 1: 232 meaning of curriculum and, 1: 228–229 methods element of, 1: 231 naturalistic models of, 1: 232–233 objectives/outcomes element of, 1: 230 philosophy contributions to, 1: 229 psychology contributions to, 1: 229 situational analysis, contextual factors and, 1: 230 sociology contributions to, 1: 229 stakeholders in, 1: 233 terminology use and, 1: 228 Tyler’s objective model of, 1: 231–232 See also Acceleration Dahir, Carol, 2: 871 Daloz, Larry, 1: 14 Dansereau, Donald, 1: 188 D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) program, 1: 284, 2: 797 Darkenwald, Gordon, 1: 11 Darling-Hammond, Linda, 1: 363 Darwin, Charles evolutionary theory of, 2: 793 naturalistic intelligence of, 2: 715 recapitualtion theory and, 2: 639 sex binary concept of, 1: 37 Davies, Patrick, 1: 332–333, 2: 914 Davis, Barbara, 1: 453 Davis, Jesse B., 2: 866 Deaf students achievement gap and, 1: 222 bilingual education and, 1: 101 Deaf Culture and, 1: 219 IDEA and, 2: 521 Dean, Paul, 1: 290 DeCharms, Richard, 2: 556 Deci, Edward cognitive evaluation theory of, 2: 557 extrinsic reward, intrinsic motivation work of, 2: 556 self-determination theory work of, 2: 556, 2: 890, 2: 891 Deductive reasoning, 1:235–236, 2: 524–525 analogical representations of premise information and, 1: 236 Bayesian inferential processes and, 1: 235 formal operational intelligence (Piaget) and, 2: 801 hypothetico-deductive reasoning and, 2: 801 inductive reasoning and, 2: 523–524 inferences, quantifier terms in, 1: 235 inferences, schemas and, 1: 235 mental-logic theories and, 1: 235–236, 2: 964 mental-models theories and, 1: 236 pragmatic inferences and, 1: 235–236 role of content in making inferences and, 1: 235 Deno, Evely, 2: 517–518 Deno, Stanley, 1: 26 Depression acculturative stress and, 1: 9 aggression victims and, 1: 22 anxiety and, 1: 39 attribution theory and, 2: 572 autobiographic memories and, 1: 338 bullying victims and, 1: 122, 2: 884 child abuse victims and, 1: 144, 1: 398 cognitive behavior modification and, 1: 161 divorce, remarriage, the family and, 1: 398–399 domestic violence and, 1: 275 genetic, family influences and, 1: 395 grade retention and, 1: 448 homelessness and, 1: 493 learned helplessness theory of, 2: 572 mood-congruent material and, 1: 338 neglect victims and, 1: 145 overweight children and, 2: 740 prevalence of, 2: 661 psychopharmacological treatment of, 1: 178 refugees and, 2: 506 sexual orientation and, 2: 901 suicide behavior and, 2: 954, 2: 956 Derzon, James, 2: 885 Deschooling Society (Illich), 1: 481 Index ———I-17 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-17 Descriptive statistics, 1:236–238 calculator use and, 1: 125–126 central tendency and, 1: 237 correlation and, 1: 237–238 dispersion and, 1: 237 examples of, 1: 237–238 field experiments and, 1: 400–402 frequency distribution and, 1: 408–409, 1: 408 (tables), 1: 409 (figure) graphical, tabular representations and, 1: 238 inferential statistics and, 2: 524–530 interquartile range and, 1: 237 in longitudinal research, 2: 618–619 mean, media, mode and, 1: 237 mean and, 2: 640–641 median and, 2: 652–654 mode and, 2: 678 normal curve and, 2: 733–734 percentile rank and, 1: 237, 2: 772–774, 2: 772 (table), 2: 774 (table) quantiles and, 1: 237 quantitative research and, 2: 834 quartiles and, 1: 237 regression and, 2: 844–845 scientific method and, 2: 888–889 standard deviation and, 1: 237, 2: 934–935 standard scores and, 2: 774, 2: 939–941 stanine scores and, 2: 943 T scores and, 2: 961–962 variance and, 2: 934–935 See also Reliability; Validity Desforges, Charles, 1: 479 de Shazer, Steve, 2: 869 Deutsch, Morton facilitative communication concept of, 1: 188 group dynamics work of, 1: 188 Developing and Managing Your School Guidance Program (Gysbers and Henderson), 2: 867 DeVries, David, 1: 188 DeVries, Rheta, 1: 162, 1: 163 Dewey, John, 1: 393 (quote) creative thinking process and, 1: 267, 2: 542 experiential learning concepts of, 2: 579 individual democracy concept and, 1: 155 inductionist constructivism and, 1: 183 learning, creativity, imagination relationship and, 1: 200 learning by doing, exploring teaching method and, 1: 255, 2: 963 learning from failure and, 1: 393 moral development, education and, 2: 563 peer collaboration and, 1: 188 DI. See Engelmann’s Direct Instruction (DI) curriculum Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 1:238–240 anorexia nervosa classified in, 1: 307–308 anxiety disorder types in, 1: 41–42 attachment disorder types in, 1: 76 autism classifications in, 1: 83 Axis I through IV disorders in, 1: 238–239 behavior disorders classified in, 1: 92 bulimia nervosa classification in, 1: 308 disabilities classification in, 1: 245 drug abuse classification in, 1: 282 eating disorder not otherwise specified and, 1: 309, 1: 312 gender identity disorder classification in, 1: 37, 1: 434, 1: 436 history of, 1: 238 homosexuality and, 2: 901 importance of, 1: 239 intelligence tests, IQ scores and, 2: 546, 2:547 (table) mental retardation definition, classification in, 2: 668, 2: 670 oppositional defiant disorder classified in, 1: 173 separation anxiety classification in, 1: 484 transvestic fetishism classificiation in, 1: 434 See also Learning disabilities Diamond, Marian, 1: 113 Diathesis-stress theories of suicidal behavior, 2: 957–958 Dickens, Charles, 2: 561 (quote) DiClemente, Carlo, 1: 281, 1: 282 The Digest of Education Statistics (NCES), 2: 722 DiPerna, James, 1: 448 Direct instruction, 1:240–243 definitions regarding, 1: 240 Engelmann’s Direct Instruction (DI) theory and, 1: 240–242 evaluation of, 1: 242 generic behavioral explicit teaching features and, 1: 240 presentation methods and, 1: 240–241, 2: 966 process steps in, 1: 240, 2: 966 program design and, 1: 241–242 student mastery of objectives and, 1: 240 variations in, 1: 242–243 See also Engelmann’s Direct Instruction (DI) curriculum program; Teaching strategies Dirkx, John, 1: 14 Disabilities, 1:243–249 Americans with Disabilities Act definition of, 1: 243 assistive technology and, 1: 66–69 classroom accommodations and, 1: 248 communicating effectively with parents and, 1: 247 Deaf Culture and, 1: 219 diagnostic dilemmas regarding, 1: 246–247 disciplinary actions and, 1: 250 early detection importance and, 1: 245 Early Head Start and, 1: 305 early intervention programs and, 1: 301, 1: 303 educating youth with, 1: 247–248 educational psychology and, 1: 248 English-language learners misdiagnosis and, 1: 247 eugenics movement and, 1: 244 federal legislation and, 1: 244, 2: 705 functional classification of, 1: 243 history of educational practices and, 1: 244–245 ICD, DSM classification of, 1: 245 IDEA and, 1: 245 inclusion and, 2: 508–511 Individualized Family Service Plan and, 1: 247 individualized instruction requirement and, 1: 248 intelligence testing to assess, 1: 244 language disorders and, 2: 565–570 learning disabilities identification and, 1: 245 least restrictive environment (LRE) requirement and, 1: 245, 1: 247 National Association for Retarded Children and, 1: 244 NCLB and, 1: 245 physical and social integration importance and, 1: 247–248 I-18 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-18 prevention and diagnosis of, 1: 245–246 risk-factors identification and, 1: 245 socially constructed classification of, 1: 243–244 students of color misdiagnosis and, 1: 245 transition planning and, 1: 248 type classification of, 1: 243 vouchers and, 2: 1010 See also Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); Learning disabilities; Mental retardation; Special education Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004 anxiety disorder and, 1: 42 Discipline, 1:249–255 academic performance factor and, 1: 250 alternative settings and, 1: 254 best practices and, 1: 254 corporal punishment and, 2: 951 expulsion and, 1: 253, 2: 951 FAST Track intervention and, 1: 254 Gun Free Schools Act and, 1: 250, 1: 252 low-level violence and, 1: 249 minority students, overrepresentation and, 1: 250 Multisystemic Therapy program and, 1: 254 negative academic indicators and, 1: 249 office referrals and, 1: 252 preventing misbehavior at classroom level and, 1: 252 preventing misbehavior at school level and, 1: 251–252 restorative justice program and, 1: 254 school characteristics with low disciplinary referrals and, 1: 251–252 school discipline indices use and, 1: 253–254 school removal rates and, 1: 250 school safety and, 1: 249, 1: 250, 1: 253, 1: 254 social policy conflict and, 1: 251 student and school characteristics interaction and, 1: 250–251 students’ rights and, 2: 951–952 students with disabilities overrepresentation and, 1: 250 suspension and, 1: 252–253, 2: 951 targeted interventions and, 1: 254 zero tolerance policies and, 1: 249, 1: 250, 1: 251, 1: 253, 1: 254, 2: 886–887 Discovery learning, 1:255–258 constructivism and, 1: 255 Control of Variable strategy research and, 1: 257–258 creation and organization of knowledge and, 1: 255 definitions regarding, 1: 255–256 direct instruction vs. , 1: 255 empirical evidence regarding, 1: 256–257 future research in, 1: 258 guided discovery and, 1: 258 guiding questions, self-explanations and, 1: 257–258 philosopher, educator influences and, 1: 255–256 praise mechanisms and, 1: 258 pure discovery to guided discovery continuum and, 1: 256 self-generations and, 1: 258 task selection and, 1: 257 transference of learning research and, 1: 256–257 See also Teaching strategies Discrimination, 1:258–261 academic performance and, 1: 260 affirmative action policies and, 1: 260 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 25–31 causes of, 1: 259–260 consequences of, 1: 260 definition of, 1: 259 gender bias and, 1: 428–429 government intervention policies and, 1: 260 of older learners, 2: 746–747 political incorrectness and, 1: 220 prejudice and, 1: 259 self-fulfilling prophecies effects and, 1: 259–260 stereotype threat concept and, 1: 19, 1: 259–260, 1: 268 white privilege concept and, 1: 220 women in the work force and, 1: 260 See also African Americans; Stereotypes Dishion, Thomas, 2: 770 Distance learning, 1:261–266 adaptive technologies use in, 1: 262–263 advantages, disadvantages of, 1: 265–266 assessment and shifting strategies issue and, 1: 264 collaborative teams issue and, 1: 264 Course Management Systems of, 1: 263 definition of, 1: 261 digital content of, 1: 263–264 digital literacy and, 1: 265 distributed learning materials and, 1: 262 e-learning and, 1: 262, 1: 266 face-to-face learning vs. , 1: 261–262, 1: 264, 1: 265 Learning Object Repository concept and, 1: 262 learning style of student focus in, 1: 262 lifelong learning and, 1: 265 mastery learning technique and, 1: 262 origin and evolution of, 1: 261 School of the Air, Australian Outback example of, 1: 261 Sharable Content Object Reference Model standard and, 1: 264 situated cognition and, 1: 264–265 symbol processing and, 1: 264 transactional contact feature of, 1: 262 video conferencing and, 1: 262 virtual community role in, 1: 264–265 virtual schools and, 2: 1002 wiki technology and, 1: 263, 1: 266 Divergent thinking, 1:267–268 competing, chaotic interactions in cognitive equilibrium and, 1: 267 convergent thinking vs. , 1: 267, 2: 550 creating and learning process of, 1: 267 product as by-product paradigm of, 1: 267 Diverging Pathways (Kerckhoff), 2: 983 Diversity, 1:268–270 charter schools and, 1: 132 differences across individuals and groups and, 1: 268 early intervention programs and, 1: 306 group membership concept and, 1: 269 human universals and, 1: 268 ingroup/outgroup, scapegoating research and, 1: 269–270 intergroup relations research and, 1: 269 interindividual differences and, 1: 270 Jigsaw cooperative learning model and, 1: 190–191, 1: 270, 2: 967 multicultural classrooms, education and, 2: 702–709 patterned changes in intraindividual psychology and, 1: 270 range of discrete variables and, 1: 268–269 Index ———I-19 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-19 sameness vs. , 1: 269 social categories and, 1: 269 social identity theory and, 1: 269 stereotype threat and, 1: 268, 1: 269–270 universality assumptions challenged by, 1: 268 See also Cultural diversity; Culture; Multicultural classrooms Divorce, 1:270–273 attachment problems and, 1: 272 “best interests of the child principle” and, 1: 271–272 child effects of: infant/toddler, 1: 272 child effects of: adolescent age, 1: 272–273 child effects of: school age, 1: 272–273 cognitive difficulties and, 1: 272–273 definition of, 1: 270–271 educational outcomes and, 1: 271 high-conflict divorces and, 1: 272 history of, 1: 271–272 home education and, 1: 483 home-school communication and, 1: 272, 1: 273 psychological problems and, 1: 398–399 school supports and, 1: 273 statistics regarding, 1: 271 Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act and, 1: 271 Dodge, Kenneth deviant peer contagion work of, 2: 770 dysfunctional communication work of, 1: 174 Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook (Silverman), 2: 828, 2: 830 Dollard, John, 2: 920 Domestic violence, 1:273–279 battered woman syndrome and, 1: 277 batterer typologies, treatment and, 1: 276–277 battering vs. , 1: 278 child abuse victims and, 1: 398 community-level interventions and, 1: 278 couple treatment and, 1: 277–278 criminal justice interventions and, 1: 278 definitions regarding, 1: 273–274 early intervention programs and, 1: 301 environmental context factors and, 1: 275 homeless families and, 1: 492, 1: 493 intergenerational transmission of violence and, 1: 275 learned helplessness and, 1: 277 mandatory arrest policies and, 1: 278 power and control and, 1: 275, 1: 276 pregnancy and, 1: 275 prevalence of, 1: 274 psychoeducational interventions for, 1: 276 psychological abuse and, 1: 274 psychological risk factors and, 1: 275 racial, ethnic, minority risk factors and, 1: 275 restraining orders, no-drop polices and, 1: 278 risk assessment, risk management of, 1: 275–276 risk factors for, 1: 274–275 sexual abuse and, 1: 274 shelters, safe houses and, 1: 274, 1: 276, 1: 278 societal costs of, 1: 274 substance abuse and, 1: 275 victim advocates and, 1: 278 women as perpetrators of, 1: 274, 1: 277–278 Dougherty, Debbie S., 2: 532 Dougherty, Michael, 2: 869 Downing, Steven, 2: 709 Dropout rates African American students and, 1: 17, 2: 703 aggression, victimization and, 1: 21 Asian American students and, 1: 59 grade retention and, 1: 448 Hispaníc American students and, 1: 471, 1: 472, 1: 474, 2: 703 poverty and, 2: 807 Drug abuse, 1:279–285 American Alcohol Prohibition Era and, 1: 284 best practices guidelines regarding, 1: 283–284 consumption prevention model and, 1: 284 definitions of, 1: 279 diagnosis, assessment of, 1: 282–283 Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program and, 1: 284, 2: 797 DSM classification of, 1: 282 economic costs of, 1: 279–280 gender differences in, 1: 280–281 ICD classification of, 1: 282–283 integrated theoretical approaches to, 1: 281 mass media prevention campaigns and, 1: 284 Monitoring the Future study of, 1: 280 moral, disease, biological models of, 1: 281 prevention strategies of, 1: 284 proscriptive prevention model and, 1: 284 psychosocial issues of, 1: 279 resistance skills training and, 1: 284 risk factors for, 1: 281–282 social theories of, 1: 281 sociocultural prevention model and, 1: 284 statistics regarding, 1: 280 transtheoretical model of change and, 1: 281, 1: 282 treatment types, settings and, 1: 283 See also Substance abuse Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) program, 1: 284, 2: 797 D’souza, Dinesh, 1: 363 Dunn, Kenneth, 2: 599 Dunn, Lloyd, 2: 517–518 Dunn, Rita, 2: 599 Durkheim, Émile obedience, morality and, 2: 683 suicide, social isolation and, 2: 956 Dweck, Carol, 1: 393 Dynamical systems, 1:285–288 all systems have a history and, 1: 287 attractors, conditions or behaviors and, 1: 286 chaos and complexity and, 1: 285 classroom variability, unpredictability and, 1: 287 within the context of the whole and, 1: 287–288 control parameter and, 1: 286 definitions regarding, 1: 285 degrees of freedom and, 1: 287 fluidity, integrativeness and, 1: 286 motor development and, 2: 696–702 neuroscience and, 2: 724–729 nonlinear characteristic of, 1: 287 perturbation disturbance to the system and, 1: 286, 1: 287 I-20 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-20 phase shifts and, 1: 286 self-organizing characteristic of, 1: 285–287 state space and, 1: 286 Dysarthrias, 1: 169–170 Dyslexia, 1:288–293 alphabetic decoding teaching methods and, 1: 289 brain function and, 1: 291 congenital word blindness and, 1: 289 co-occurring disorders with, 1: 289 degrees of severity of, 1: 289 genetics and, 1: 291 IDEA and, 1: 289 instructional programming treatment of, 1: 292–293 International Dyslexia Association definition of, 1: 288 low-level auditory deficits and, 1: 290 low-level visual deficits and, 1: 289–290 neurobiological origin of, 1: 288, 1: 291, 1: 293 Orton-Gillingham teaching reading method and, 1: 289 perceptual-motor, cerebellar deficits and, 1: 290 phonological coding deficits and, 1: 290–291, 1: 292, 2: 512, 2: 568–569, 2: 587–588, 2: 929–930 prevalence of, statistics regarding, 1: 288–289 response-to-intervention identification of, 1: 289 scotopic sensitive syndrome cause of, 1: 290 special education and, 1: 289 treatment of, 1: 291–293 visual perception deficits and, 1: 289 Eagley, Alice attractiveness stereotype work of, 1: 458–459 social role theory and, 1: 426 Eagley, Carol, 1: 394 Early child care and education, 1:295–301 attachment, emotional availability in, 1: 299–300 brain development, cognition affected by, 1: 295 caregiver sensitivity and, 1: 299 child- and family-centered practices importance in, 1: 296 child care homes, centers and, 1: 295 definition of, 1: 295 Early Head Start program model of, 1: 296 family contexts in, 1: 298–300 home education and, 1: 474–485 importance of, 1: 295 in-home care and, 1: 295 military model of child care and, 1: 296–298 NAEYC accreditation and, 1: 298 physical environment importance and, 1: 298–299 regulated and process variables in, 1: 296 socioemotional development focus of, 1: 299 state licensing and monitoring and optional accreditation and, 1: 296 types of, 1: 295 Web site resources for, 1: 300–301 wraparound child care and, 1: 295 See also Early Head Start program; Head Start; Military model of child care Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, 1: 462 Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies-Birth Cohort, 1: 302, 2: 721 Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K), 1: 447, 2: 721 Early Childhood Outcomes (ECO) Center, 1: 306 Early Head Start program Administration on Children, Youth and Families and, 1: 305 effectiveness studies of, 1: 305, 1: 306, 2: 857 longitudinal research resulting from, 1: 302 service individualization and, 1: 305 special needs children and, 1: 305 See also Head Start Early intervention programs, 1:301–307 Carolina Abecedarian Project and, 1: 302 Chicago Child-Parent Centers and, 1: 302 child development gap reduction using, 1: 301 disability: birth to three and, 1: 303 disability: preschool, 1: 304 Early Head Start, 1: 302, 1: 305, 1: 306, 2: 857 Education of the Handicapped ACT and, 1: 303, 1: 304 Elmira Prenatal/Early Infancy Program, 1: 303 Head Start, 1: 302, 1: 304–305 health care programs and, 1: 301 home-based family-centered services and, 1: 302–303 IDEA and, 1: 303, 1: 306–307 implications of, 1: 306–307 Infant Health and Development Program, 1: 306 longitudinal research in, 1: 301, 1: 302 National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study and, 1: 303–304 neonatal interventions and, 1: 301, 1: 303 Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program and, 1: 301 Perry Preschool Project and, 1: 302 poverty interventions and, 1: 304–305 Pre-Elementary Educational Longitudinal Study and, 1: 304 prevention efforts and, 1: 301 standards for evaluating effectiveness and, 1: 306 See also Early Head Start program; Head Start Easterbrook, George, 2: 827 (quote) Eating disorders, 1:307–313 anorexia nervosa, 1: 307–308 binge eating disorder, 1: 312–313 body shape, weight perception distortions and, 1: 307, 1: 308, 1: 309, 1: 310, 2: 796 bulimia nervosa, 1: 308–309 child abuse and, 1: 398 course of and relations between, 1: 309–310 dieting and, 1: 311 eating and feeding disorders of early childhood and, 1: 313 eating disorder not otherwise specified, 1: 309, 1: 310, 1: 312–313 family influences and, 1: 310–311 gender differences in, 1: 309 genetic influences and, 1: 310 history of, 1: 309 mortality rates and, 1: 310 nutrition, exercise, body image and, 2: 796 obesity, 2: 739–742 prevalence of, 1: 309 prevention and treatment of, 1: 312 sociocultural factors and, 1: 311–312 “thin ideal” concept and, 1: 311 weight gain fears and, 1: 307, 1: 308, 1: 309, 1: 310 See also Anorexia nervosa (AN); Bulimia nervosa (BN) Eaton, Warren O., 1: 435 Ebbers, Larry learning communities research of, 2: 579, 2: 580, 2: 582 Index ———I-21 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-21 Ebbinghous, Hermann memory research of, 2: 656 smooth learning curve research of, 1: 185 Ebel, Robert multiple-choice test work of, 2: 710 norm- and criterion-referenced terms and, 2: 710 ECO. See Early Childhood Outcomes (ECO) Center Ecological systems theory academic achievement example and, 2: 853 behavior modification and, 1: 93 Uri Bronfenbrenner’s work in, 1: 93, 2: 852 chronosystem and, 2: 853 exosystem external environments and, 2: 852 macrosystem societal contexts and, 2: 852–853 mesosystem linkages and, 2: 852 microsystem of the individual and, 2: 852 proximal processes and, 2: 852 risk factors, development and, 2: 853–855 Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, 1: 460 Education Act 1996 (United Kingdom), 1: 477 Educational Assessment of Students (Nitko), 1: 204 Educational technology, 1:313–321 academic field of, 1: 321 ADDIE process (analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation) and, 1: 318–319, 1: 320 assistive technology and, 1: 66–69 authoring tools software and, 1: 321 for classroom replication, 1: 317 computer revolution and, 1: 314–315, 1: 320 course management systems (CMS) and, 1: 318, 1: 320 for creating learning materials, 1: 315–316 criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 319 definitions regarding, 1: 313–314 design of instruction and, 1: 319–320 for facilitating communication among learners, 1: 316–317 for facilitating evaluation, 1: 317 hardware, software research and, 1: 320 history of, 1: 314–315 human performance technology and, 1: 319 instructional-design processes, products and, 1: 318, 1: 321 instructional technology and, 1: 314 knowledge volume expansion and, 1: 315 learning content management systems and, 1: 318 learning management systems (LMS) and, 1: 317–318, 1: 320 learning process resources and, 1: 320 learning sciences and, 1: 320 planning and installation of, 1: 321 processes and theories of, 1: 318–319 research and theory regarding, 1: 319–320 standards for, 1: 318 synchronous vs. asynchronous software and, 1: 321 virtual classroom software and, 1: 321 Education Amendments of 1972, Title IX gender equity and, 1: 70, 1: 427, 1: 428, 2: 871 Education Amendments of 1974, 1: 245 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, 2: 519, 2: 520, 2: 626, 2: 871, 2: 925 Education of Homeless Children and Youth Program, 1: 491 Education of the Handicapped ACT (EHA) Amendments of 1975, 1: 245, 2: 517, 2: 518 Education of the Handicapped ACT (EHA) of 1986, 1: 303, 1: 304, 2: 517 Education Statistics Quarterly (NCES), 2: 722 Effective teaching, characteristics of, 1:321–326 activity structure technique and, 1: 325 advance organizer concept and, 1: 325 constructivist teaching and, 1: 324 content, process questions and, 1: 325 expert teachers and, 1: 379–382 explicit teaching and, 1: 384–385 good teaching vs. , 1: 321 instructional variety and, 1: 322 lesson clarity and, 1: 321–322 personalized system of instruction and, 2: 786–790 precision teaching and, 2: 809–812 probing and, 1: 325–326 questioning and, 1: 325 scaffolding and, 2: 588–589, 2: 630 structuring and, 1: 324–325 student disengagement and, 1: 323 student engaged learning time and, 1: 322–323 student success rate and, 1: 323 teacher affect and, 1: 326 teacher behavior, student performance relationship and, 1: 321 teacher certification and, 1: 128–129 teacher task orientation and, 1: 322 using student ideas, contributions and, 1: 324 verbal markers technique and, 1: 325 See also Learning Egan, Susan, 1: 435 Egocentrism, 1:327–328 consequences of, 1: 327 “curse of knowledge” concept and, 1: 328 difficulty to overcome and, 1: 328 false consensus effect and, 1: 327–328 history regarding, 1: 327 importance of, 1: 327–328 past and future understood from current perspective and, 1: 327 Jean Piaget and, 1: 327 EHA. See Education of the Handicapped ACT (EHA) Amendments of 1975; Education of the Handicapped ACT (EHA) of 1986 EI. See Emotional intelligence (EI) Einstein, Albert, 1: 442, 1: 499 (quote) Eisenberger, Robert, 2: 559 E-learning, 2: 606 Electroencephalography (EEG), 1: 112 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 1: 379, 1: 491, 2: 517, 2: 586, 2: 730 Eliade, Mircea, 1: 37 Elliott, E. C., 1: 60 Ellis, Albert, 1: 160 Ellis, Rod, 1: 108–109 Emergency Community Services Homeless Grant Program, 1: 491 Emmons, Robert, 2: 692 Emotional development, 1:328–334 academic performance and, 1: 328 acceleration programs and, 1: 4, 1: 6 coping strategies and, 1: 329 definition of, 1: 328 developmental psychopathology study of, 1: 333–334 I-22 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-22 divorce and, 1: 270–273 early child care, education and, 1: 295–300 emotionality and, 1: 329 emotional reactivity, expression and, 1: 328–329 emotional regulation and, 1: 329 emotional understanding and, 1: 329–330 empathy and, 1: 341–343 friendship and, 1: 409–413 marital relationship influence on, 1: 332–333 Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs and, 2: 633–639 maturation and, 2: 639–640 motivation and emotion and, 2: 692–696 multifinality, equifinality outcome pathways and, 1: 333 normal and abnormal development of, 1: 333–334 parent-child relationship and, 1: 331–332 temperament factors and, 1: 330–331, 2: 853 See also Acceleration; Head Start Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (Goleman), 1: 335–336 Emotional intelligence (EI), 1:334–338 academic performance and, 1: 337 age differences in, 1: 337 Bar-On’s work in, 1: 336 conclusions regarding, 1: 337 cooperative combination of intelligence, emotion and, 1: 335 definitions regarding, 1: 334 Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) and, 1: 335–336 Emotional Quotient Inventory and, 1: 336 emotional-social intelligence and, 1: 336, 1: 337 empathy and, 1: 335, 1: 342 gender differences in, 1: 337 Mayer-Solovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test and, 1: 336 measurement of, 1: 336 motivation and, 1: 335 motivation and emotion and, 2: 692–696 neurological evidence regarding, 1: 337 research findings regarding, 1: 336–337 self-awareness and, 1: 335 self-regulation and, 1: 334–335, 1: 337, 2: 695–696 social skills and, 1: 335–336 success in life predictor of, 1: 334, 1: 337 verbal intelligence and, 1: 337 Emotion and memory, 1:338–341 autobiographical memories and, 1: 338 cognitive avoidance strategy and, 1: 338–339 Easterbrook hypothesis and, 1: 339 eyewitness testimony and, 1: 338–339 fading affect bias and, 1: 338 flashbulb memories and, 1: 339–340, 1: 403–406, 2: 657 Now Print mechanism and, 1: 339 Pollyanna Principle and, 1: 338 reduced memory specificity and, 1: 338–339 traumatic events memory and, 1: 338–339, 1: 340 weapon focusing hypothesis and, 1: 339 See also Learning Empathy, 1:341–343 academic performance and, 1: 342 altruistic behavior and, 1: 341, 1: 342 antecedents of, 1: 341–342 in the classroom, 1: 342 cognitive, effective, motivational components of, 1: 341 definition of, 1: 341 emotional intelligence competency of, 1: 335, 1: 342 functions of, 1: 342 future research on, 1: 342 measurement of, 1: 341 origins of, 1: 341 moral development and, 2: 682 parent attitudes, child-rearing practices and, 1: 341–342 peer influences and, 2: 771 prosocial behavior and, 1: 341, 1: 342 teacher empathy and, 1: 342 Endler, Lorna, 1: 163 Engelmann’s Direct Instruction (DI) curriculum program criteria for program design and, 1: 241–242 demonstrate, prompt, test delivery phases of, 1: 241 homogeneous grouping in, 1: 241 interactivity element of, 1: 241 learners who benefit from, 1: 240, 2: 964 learner verified scripts of, 1: 240, 1: 241 operant conditioning and, 2: 751 student prerequisite skills focus of, 1: 242 teacher skills shaped by, 1: 241 U.S. Department of Education evaluation of, 1: 242 English as a second language (ESL), 1:343–348 acronyms of, 1: 343 assessment and, 1: 348 audiolingual teaching method and, 1: 345 bilingual education and, 1: 97–103 bilingualism and, 1: 103–110 communicative competence and, 1: 343–344, 1: 346 communicative language teaching method and, 1: 346 community counseling learning method of, 1: 345 current issues regarding, 1: 347–348 definition of, 1: 343 “designer methods” of teaching and, 1: 345 discourse competence and, 1: 344 dual language, bilingual programs and, 1: 347 EFL and, 1: 347 ESL teaching today, 1: 346–347 factors affecting, 1: 347 grammatical competence and, 1: 343 history of teaching English and, 1: 344–346 homeless families and, 1: 493 inner, outer, expanding English speaking circles and, 1: 343 introduction to, 1: 343 language as a social practice and, 1: 346 learning vs. acquisition and, 1: 346 linguistic competence and, 1: 343 mainstream classrooms and, 1: 347 nonnative instructors and, 1: 348 noticing hypothesis regarding, 1: 346 notional-functional teaching approach and, 1: 346 output hypothesis regarding, 1: 346 Silent Way teaching method and, 1: 345 strategic competence and, 1: 343–344 Suggestopedia teaching method and, 1: 345 total physical response teaching approach and, 1: 345, 1: 346 See also Bilingual education; Bilingualism; Literacy Episodic memory, 1:348–350 adult learning and, 1: 12 autobiographical memory vs. , 1: 348, 2: 655 Index ———I-23 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-23 definition of, 1: 338 educational psychology and, 1: 348–349 emotion and memory and, 1: 338–340 enhancement of, 2: 623 explicit memory and, 1: 383–384 flashbulb memories and, 1: 404–406, 2: 657 history regarding, 1: 349 remembering vs. knowing and, 1: 349 research regarding, 1: 350 semantic memory vs. , 1: 349–350, 2: 655 separate systems, criticisms of, 1: 349–350 separate systems, evidence for, 1: 349 theories of forgetting and, 2: 621–623 See also Learning Equal Rights Amendment, 1: 430 Equilibration, 1:350–351 assimilation vs. accommodation tendencies and, 1: 350–351 definition of, 1: 350 developmental mechanisms and, 1: 350 developmental states and, 1: 350 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and, 1: 350–351, 2: 802 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, 1:351–354 adult learning and, 1: 10, 2: 606–607 ego identity and, 1: 352 eight life stages and, 1: 352–353 family values and ideologies and, 1: 352 generativity vs. stagnation and, 2: 823 identity conflicts and, 1: 352, 1: 353–354, 2: 499 identity definitions and, 1: 352 identity formation dimensions and, 1: 354, 2: 505, 2: 822 identity statuses and, 1: 353–354 integrity vs. despair and, 2: 824 intimacy level assessment and, 1: 354 intimacy vs. isolation and, 2: 822 intimacy vs. stagnation and, 1: 353–354 midlife stage of, 2: 505 negative identity development and, 2: 500 power of educational institutions and, 1: 354 psychosocial moratorium importance and, 1: 353 social identity and, 1: 352 women’s identity and, 1: 353 See also Identity development ESEA. See Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) ESL. See English as a second language (ESL) Essay tests, 1:355–356 analytic scoring of, 1: 355 centralized vs. distributed scoring sessions and, 1: 356 cognitive psychology developments and, 1: 355 development process for, 1: 355 explicit memory and, 1: 384 holistic scoring of, 1: 355 multiple-choice tests vs. , 1: 355 rubrics, scoring guidelines and, 1: 356 scaling measurement of, 2: 643 technological developments in, 1: 356 Estes, William, 1: 186 Ethics and research, 1:356–362 African Americans, syphilis research and, 1: 360 animal research and, 1: 360–361 Belmont Report and, 1: 360, 2: 531 collaborative research and, 1: 359 Common Rule and, 1: 360 confidentiality, 2: 830 conflict of interest, commitment and, 1: 361–362 data acquisition, management and, 1: 357 definitions regarding, 1: 356, 1: 362 disciplinary codes regarding, 1: 357 experimental design selection and, 1: 374 federal regulations relating to, 1: 357 Federal-Wide Assurance of Protection for Human Subjects and, 1: 360 financial gain issue and, 1: 361 informed consent and, 2: 530, 2: 531–532, 2: 830 institutional review boards and, 2: 530–533 International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and, 1: 358 mentor-trainee relationships and, 1: 357–358 Nuremberg Code and, 1: 359–360 Office for Human Research Protections and, 1: 360, 2: 531, 2: 533 peer review practices and, 1: 358–359 personal and intellectual conflicts and, 1: 361 personality tests and, 2: 782 protection of human subjects and, 1: 359–360 publication practices, authorship and, 1: 358 of qualitative methods, 2: 830–831 radomized field experiments and, 1: 401 research misconduct and, 1: 360, 1: 362, 2: 531 responsible conduct of research and, 1: 356 sex education and, 2: 900 Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, 1: 360 work commitment conflicts and, 1: 361 Ethnicity and race, 1:362–366 academic achievement and, 1: 363, 2: 703–704 adult learning and, 1: 10 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 assimilation and, 1: 60 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas , 1: 17, 1: 18, 2: 705 color-blind racism concept and, 1: 364 conformity and, 2: 501 critical race theory and, 1: 365 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217 cultural learning styles and, 2: 703–705 data collection, interpretation and, 1: 362 definitions regarding, 1: 362–365, 1: 365 discrimination and, 1: 259–260 dissonance and appreciating and, 2: 501 diversity and, 1: 268–270 domestic violence risk factors and, 1: 275 educational opportunities and, 1: 362–363 ethnic identity and, 1: 60 ethnic identity and, belief in shared culture and, 1: 363 ethnicity, cultural distinctiveness and, 1: 363 ethnicity, process of belonging and, 1: 363 ethnicity as foundation of diversity among racial categories and, 1: 225 ethnicity vs. culture and, 1: 217–218 global colonization period and, 1: 364 Guadalupe v. Tempe and, 2: 705 Head Start programs and, 1: 461–462 HIV/AIDS and, 1: 477 identity development and, 2: 501–502 I-24 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-24 inclusion of disabled students and, 2: 511 integrative awareness and, 2: 502 introspection and, 2: 502 Latin American immigrants and, 1: 364 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 national identity and, 1: 364 obesity and, 2: 740 political incorrectness and, 1: 220 race, biological distinctiveness and, 1: 363 race, creating otherness and, 1: 363 race, ethnicity, national origin impact and, 1: 362–363 race, shared characteristics and, 1: 363 race, as socially constructed variable and, 1: 225 racial beliefs vs. racism and, 1: 365 Racial/Cultural Identity Model and, 2: 500 racialization and, 1: 362, 1: 364 religious groups as ethnic groups and, 1: 218 resistance, immersion and, 2: 501 social class, classism and, 2: 908–912 U.S. Census and, 1: 365 white privilege case example and, 1: 220 See also African Americans; American Indians and Alaska Natives; Culture; Hispanic Americans; Social class and classism; Stereotypes Ethnography, 1:366–367 criticisms of, 1: 367 definition of, 1: 366 educational field and, 1: 366 ethnographic process and, 1: 366–367 ethnographic product and, 1: 367 history of, 1: 366 human societies research and, 1: 366 internal validity and, 1: 367 participant observation focus of, 1: 366 qualitative research and, 1: 366, 2: 828 structure, control, generalizability issues and, 1: 367 Evaluation, 1:367–373 abstinence education and, 1: 1–4 accuracy standards and, 1: 371 alternative academic assessment and, 1: 25–31 assessment vs. , 1: 60 behavior modification program and, 1: 95 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and, 1: 111 change over time focus of, 1: 369 constraints and, 1: 373 costs and benefits of, 1: 370 curriculum development and, 1: 231 definition of, 1: 367–368 design of, 1: 372 experimental field trials and, 1: 371 external validity and, 1: 386–387 feasibility standards and, 1: 370 formative vs. summative evaluation and, 1: 369 general models of, 1: 371–372 goals context of, 1: 368–369 halo effect and, 1: 458–459 heuristic for viewing of, 1: 371 (figure) Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation and, 1: 370 judgments of worth and, 1: 373 National Center for Education Statistics and, 1: 10, 1: 249, 1: 447, 2: 703, 2: 704, 2: 719–720 naturalistic observation and, 2: 722–724 needs assessment and, 1: 369–370 personnel evaluations and, 1: 368 PRAXIS™ and, 1: 129, 2: 807–808 professional organizations and, 1: 370 professional standards and, 1: 370–371 program evaluations and, 1: 368 propriety standards and, 1: 370–371 pseudo-evaluations and, 1: 367–368 randomized controlled trial and, 1: 371–372 research vs. , 1: 368 rubrics and, 2: 859–860 scoring rubrics and, 1: 368 skills and, 1: 372 stakeholders audience of, 1: 369 technical concerns regarding, 1: 372 utility standards and, 1: 370 See also Assessment; Reliability; Validity Evans, Jonathan, 1: 235 Evolutionary psychology, 1: 424 Exner, John, 2: 785 Experimental design, 1:373–379 confounding variable and, 1: 375 confounding variable and, history as, 1: 376, 2: 544 control and precise quantification in, 1: 373 control groups and, 2: 835 correlational research and, 1: 373, 2: 837–838 criterion variable and, 1: 375 cross-sectional design and, 1: 378 definitions regarding, 1: 373–374 design examples, 1: 377–378 educational psychology applications of, 1: 373 ethical considerations and, 1: 374 experimental control and, 2: 834–835 experimental treatment element of, 1: 374, 2: 835 experimental vs. control group in, 1: 374 experimenter expectancy effect and, 2: 858–859 external validity and, 1: 386–387 factorial design and, 1: 378, 2: 836–837 field experiment and, 1: 373 Fisher’s work and, 1: 373–374 independent, dependent samples design and, 1: 378 independent, dependent variables in, 1: 374, 1: 375–376 institutional review boards and, 2: 530–533 instrumental variables regression and, 1: 401 instrumentation internal validity threat and, 1: 377, 2: 554 internal validity threats and, 1: 376–377, 2: 554–555 internal vs. external validity and, 1: 375–376, 1: 386–387 longitudinal design and, 1: 378 matching, blocking subjects and, 1: 378 maturation internal validity threat and, 1: 376–377, 2: 554 mean and, 2: 640–641 median and, 2: 652–654 mode and, 2: 678 mortality internal validity threat and, 1: 377 multiple time-series design and, 1: 377–378 nonequivalent control group design and, 1: 377 observational research and, 1: 373 Index ———I-25 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-25 pre-, quasi-, true experimental designs and, 1: 376, 1: 387, 2: 836–838 precision vs. relevance in, 1: 373 predictor variable and, 1: 375 pretest-posttest control group design and, 1: 377, 1: 387, 2: 836 quantitative research and, 2: 834–836 random assignment of subjects in, 1: 374, 2: 834 scientific metho

bundet

d and, 2: 888–889 single-subject design and, 1: 378, 2: 836 standard deviation, variance and, 2: 934–935 standardized test instruments and, 2: 835 statistical procedures applied to, 1: 374 statistical regression and, 1: 377 time-series design and, 1: 377–378, 2: 836 treatment, subject variables in, 1: 375 true vs. natural experiment examples and, 1: 374–375 unwanted variability and, 1: 374 Expert teachers, 1:379–382 beyond pedagogy and, 1: 381 college level teachers and, 1: 382 content preparation and, 1: 379–380 culture contextual factors and, 1: 382 definitions regarding, 1: 379–380 education course work and, 1: 379–380 effective teaching characteristics and, 1: 321–326 elementary vs. secondary grades and, 1: 381 growth curve modeling and, 1: 381 identification, preparation of, 1: 379 international perspectives on, 1: 382 National board-certified teachers and, 1: 380 NCLB and, 1: 379, 1: 380–381, 2: 730, 2: 732–733 qualified teacher in every classroom and, 1: 380–381 quantitative definitions and, 1: 381 student socioeconomic status and, 1: 380 teacher certification and, 1: 128–129 Teachers for a New Era (TNE) and, 1: 382 value-added modeling and, 1: 381 See also Teaching strategies Explicit memory, 1:383–384 , 2: 654 definition of, 1: 383 differential task performance and, 2: 657 educational implications of, 1: 383–384 factors affecting, 1: 383 implicit memory vs. , 2: 656–657 instruction techniques and, 1: 383–384 recognition and recall tasks and, 1: 383 similarities, differences among memories and, 1: 383 spacing effect and, 1: 383, 1: 384 student study techniques and, 1: 384 testing effect and, 1: 383, 1: 384 See also Learning Explicit teaching, 1:384–386 at-risk students and, 1: 385 discovery learning and, 1: 255–258 explanation of, 1: 384–385 modeling process of, 1: 384, 2: 589 procedure for, 1: 385 reading, mathematics instruction and, 1: 385 student mastery focus of, 1: 385 “think-alouds” technique and, 1: 384, 2: 965 External validity, 1:386–387 field experiments and, 1: 400–401 generalization of experimental findings and, 1: 386 history and treatment interaction and, 1: 387, 2: 544 increasing techniques and, 1: 386 internal validity vs. , 1: 387, 2: 554–555 pretest-posttest control group design and, 1: 387 selection and treatment interaction and, 1: 386 setting by treatment interaction and, 1: 387 threats to, 1: 386–387 Extracurricular activities, 1:387–392 academic improvement and, 1: 5, 1: 6, 1: 388–389, 1: 392 at risk students and, 1: 388, 1: 392 bullying and, 1: 122 characteristics of high-quality programs and, 1: 390 common features shared by, 1: 387 contextual factors and, 1: 389, 1: 392 creativity and, 1: 195–196 differences among activities factor and, 1: 391 disabled students and, 1: 244 effects of participation and, 1: 388–389 explanations for benefits of, 1: 389 future research regarding, 1: 390–392 grade point average and, 1: 389 importance of, 1: 387–388 limitations of research on, 1: 390–392 measurement of, 1: 389–390 motivational benefits of, 1: 388, 1: 389 National Survey of America’s Families and, 1: 387–388 parental, coach behavior and, 1: 388 participation patterns factor and, 1: 391 peer influences and, 1: 388, 1: 389 psychological adjustment and, 1: 388 school athletics and, 1: 71–72 school community sense and, 1: 388 school disengagement affected by, 1: 388 self-selection factor and, 1: 390–391 stress, overscheduled youth concern and, 1: 388–389, 1: 390 student characteristics and, 1: 389, 1: 391–392 Extrinsic motivation. See Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation Eyewitness testimony, 1: 338–339 Failure, effects of, 1:393–395 antecedent conditions and, 1: 393 attributional retraining and, 1: 394 behavior strategy changes and, 1: 393 fear of failure achievement motivation and, 2: 690 learned helplessness and, 2: 570–573 motivation and, 1: 393–394, 2: 690 Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey and, 1: 394 performance-approach goals and, 1: 394 personality dimensions factor and, 1: 393 post-feedback reactions and, 1: 393 self-image, self-efficacy, self-esteem and, 1: 393 suicide and, 2: 954–959 Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, 2: 871 Family influences, 1:395–400 abstinence education and, 1: 1 attachment and, 1: 395–396 child abuse and, 1: 398 I-26 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-26 child’s emotional development and, 1: 331–334 child’s social development and, 2: 913–915 development risk factors and, 2: 853–854 divorce, remarriage, the family and, 1: 398–399 divorce and, 1: 270–273 early child care, education and, 1: 295–300 early intervention programs and, 1: 301, 1: 302–303 eating disorders and, 1: 310–311 genetic, environmental influences and, 1: 395 Hispanic Americans and, 1: 472, 1: 474–476 home environment, academic intrinsic motivation and, 1: 485–490 homeless families and, 1: 490–494 individual differences in children, parents and, 1: 397 as mediator variables, 1: 397–398 as moderator variables, 1: 397 National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study and, 1: 303–304 parenting styles and, 1: 396 peer aggression and, 1: 22 physical, mental health disorders and, 1: 398 as protective factors, 1: 396–397 as risk factors, 1: 396, 2: 853–854 as risk sources, 1: 398 school support and, 1: 398 in social and cultural development, 1: 399–400 social development and, 2: 913–915 suicide behavior and, 2: 954–955 vouchers and, 2: 1009–1010 See also Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM); Parental expectations; Parenting; Parenting styles Fausto-Sterling, Anne, 1: 38 Fawcett, Angela, 1: 290 Fechner, Gustav, 2: 642 Ferster, C. B., 2: 947 Feshbach, Norma empathy work of, 1: 341, 1: 342 Feshbach, S., 1: 342 FI/D. See Field independence–field dependence (FI/D) Field experiments, 1:400–402 attrition and, 1: 401, 2: 544 challenges faced by, 1: 401 cross-sectional research and, 1: 212 definition, examples of, 1: 400 external validity and, 1: 400–401 generalizability of, 1: 401 Hawthorne effects and, 1: 401 institutional review boards and, 2: 530–533 instrumental variables regression and, 1: 401 intervention and setting interaction and, 1: 401 isolation of causal relationships through, 1: 400 natural experiments vs. , 1: 401–402 noncompliance and, 1: 401 observational research and, 1: 373 qualitative research method of, 2: 828 randomization, ethical considerations and, 1: 401 spillover effects and, 1: 401 Field independence–field dependence (FI/D), 1:402–403 cognitive style dimension of, 1: 402 cognitive style vs. ability and, 1: 402 definition of, 1: 402 educational psychology applications of, 1: 402 empirical research regarding, 1: 403 Group Embedded Figures Test and, 1: 403 individual differences, technology use and, 1: 403 measurement of, 1: 402–403 Fine, Michelle, 2: 900 Fink, L. Dee, 1: 451 Fink, Paul J., 1: 436 Finley, Marilee K., 2: 985 First Nations persons. See American Indians and Alaska Natives Fischer, Kurt educational brain science work of, 1: 114, 2: 541 Fisher, Ronald, 1: 373–374 Fiske, Angela, 1: 448 Fiske, Susan, 2: 946 Fitzgerald, Francis Scott Key, 2: 863 (quote) Flashbulb memories, the nature of, 1:403–406 definition regarding, 1: 403 emotion and memory and, 1: 339–340 episodic memory and, 1: 404, 2: 657 other memories vs. , 1: 405 procedural memory and, 1: 403 public vs. private memories and, 1: 404 “special mechanism” hypothesis and, 1: 405 study of, 1: 404–406 superior memory detail of, 1: 405–406 time passing factor and, 1: 405 variables in formation of, 1: 405 Flege, James, 1: 347 FLS. See Fullerton Longitudinal Study (FLS) Fluid intelligence, 1:406–408 biological influences on development of, 1: 407, 2: 537 cognitive processing characteristics of, 1: 406–407 controversies regarding, 1: 407 crystallized intelligence ( g c ) and, 1: 406, 2: 537, 2: 550 cultural bias in assessment of, 1: 407 emotional intelligence and, 1: 334–337 environmental advantages and, 1: 407 explanation of, 1: 406 field independence-field dependence cognitive style and, 1: 402–403 general intelligence (g) and, 1: 406, 2: 689 Group Embedded Figures Test and, 1: 403 history regarding, 1: 406 individual differences in, 1: 407 measures of, 1: 407 multiple intelligences and, 1: 407 working memory and, 1: 407 See also Adult learning Forsyth, Donelson, 1: 394 Fortune-Wood, Mike, 1: 478 Foucar, Elliot, 2: 533 Foucault, Michel, 1: 430 Framingham Heart Study, 2: 853 Frank, Lawrence, 2: 785 Franzen, R. H., 1: 459 Freire, Paulo banking model of education and, 2: 582 conscientization work of, 1: 14 Index ———I-27 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-27 Frequency distribution, 1:408–409 class interval creation guidelines and, 1: 408 data distribution, visual representations of, 1: 408, 1: 408 (figures) histogram visualization of, 1:409 (figure) Freud, Sigmund case study work of, 1: 128 moral affect, guilt, shame and, 2: 681–682 parenting, guilt and, 2: 681–682 personality tests from, 2: 781 primary drives, motivation and, 2: 556, 2: 781, 2: 920 projection work of, 2: 785 psychoanalytic theory, aggression and, 2: 919–920 psychoanalytic theory, gender differences and, 1: 424 superego concept of, 2: 681 See also Psychoanalytic theory Friendship, 1:409–413 acquaintances, peer acceptance and, 1: 410–411 childhood development stages and, 1: 409, 1: 411–412 cliques and, 1: 149–152 commonalities presence and, 1: 411 companionship theme and, 1: 411–412 conflict management and, 1: 410, 1: 412 implications of, 1: 412–413 intimacy, support and, 1: 412 negative effects of, 1: 412–413 peer group social acceptance vs. , 1: 410–411, 1: 412 positive interactions and, 1: 410 school adaptation and, 1: 409, 1: 412–413 self-concept and, 1: 409 sense of responsibility and, 1: 410 social competence and, 1: 410–411 See also Peer influences Frisbie, David, 2: 710 Fullerton Longitudinal Study (FLS), 1: 485, 1: 486, 1: 487, 1: 488, 1: 489 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 1: 112 Gabelnick, Faith, 2: 581 Gagne, Robert hierarchies of capabilities and, 1: 229 instructional objectives and, 2: 533, 2: 536 nine events of instruction and, 1: 319 Gallagher, James, 2: 517–518 Gallistel, Randy, 1: 186 Galton, Sir Francis Classification of Men According to Their Natural Gifts and, 2: 781 inheritance, intelligence and, 1: 439 intelligence as structural feature and, 2: 537 intelligence measurement and, 1: 50, 2: 550, 2: 642, 2: 735 psychological measurement and, 2: 781 psychometric intelligence and, 2: 536 Gamoran, Adam, 2: 984 Gangs, 1:415–421 academic, social sciences definition of, 1: 415, 1: 416 changes in, 1: 416–517 collective identity shared by, 1: 416 comprehensive approach regarding, 1: 421 corporate gangs and, 1: 417 criminal justice, law enforcement definitions of, 1: 415, 1: 416 definitional problems regarding, 1: 415–416 “disrespect” and, 1: 419 drugs and, 1: 419–420 dysfunctional families and, 1: 417–418 empowerment, status of, 1: 418 etiology of, 1: 417–418 fatalism and, 1: 418 future research regarding, 1: 421 gang member profile and, 1: 417 guns and, 1: 419 intervention strategy regarding, 1: 420–421 membership consequences and, 1: 419 membership dynamics and, 1: 418–419 organization, structure of, 1: 416 poverty and, 1: 417, 1: 418 prevention strategy regarding, 1: 420 reputations of, 1: 416 scavenger gangs and, 1: 417 suburban, rural gangs and, 1: 416, 1: 417 suppress strategy regarding, 1: 420 territorial gangs and, 1: 416, 1: 417 violence of, 1: 416–420 women in, 1: 417, 1: 418 See also Peer influences Garces, Eliana, 1: 464 Gardner, Howard multiple intelligences theory and, 1: 12, 1: 118, 1: 221, 1: 335, 1: 439, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 712–716 structural view of intelligence and, 2: 538 Gattegno, Caleb, 1: 345 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 1: 96, 2: 734 Gender, 1:421–428 adolescent physical development and, 2: 795 attributes associated with sexes and, 1: 422 binary construct of gender and, 1: 430–432 biological influences on, 1: 423–424 chromosomes, hormones and, 1: 423–424, 1: 430, 1: 432, 1: 435 cognitive development theory and, 1: 425 definitions, meanings of, 1: 421–422 evolutionary psychology and, 1: 424 expectation states theory and, 1: 426 gender bias and, 1: 428–429 gender equity in education and, 1: 427 gender role identity and, 2: 502 gender schema theory and, 1: 425 gender stereotyping and, 1: 422, 1: 424, 1: 427, 1: 431 gender vs. sex and, 1: 421–422, 1: 429 inequities of, 1: 422 integrative models and, 1: 426–427 language use of, 1: 421, 1: 429 measuring gender differences and, 1: 422–423 parental influences and, 1: 424–425 peer influences and, 1: 425 psychoanalytic theory and, 1: 424 social categorization and, 1: 422, 1: 426 social cognitive theory and, 1: 424–425 social comparison and, 1: 426 social early learning influences on, 1: 424–425 social identity theory and, 1: 426 social role theory and, 1: 426 sociological influences on, 1: 425–426 See also Gender bias; Gender differences; Gender identity I-28 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-28 Gender bias, 1:428–429 androgyny and, 1: 37–38 in athletic graduation rates, 1: 72 classroom resources and, 1: 429 discrimination and, 1: 260 Equal Rights Amendment, 1: 430 gender equity in college sports and, 1: 71 gender equity in education and, 1: 427 gender roles and, 1: 428 socialization, academic performance and, 1: 428–429 solutions regarding, 1: 429 teacher attention and, 1: 429 Title IX and, 1: 70–71, 1: 427, 1: 428 Gender differences, 1:429–435 in academic performance, 1: 428 ADHD and, 1: 79, 1: 80 adult learning and, 1: 10 in aggression, 1: 423, 1: 430–431 androgyny, 1: 37–38 anxiety and, 1: 39 autism and, 1: 84, 1: 85 binary construct of gender and, 1: 430–432 biological influences on, 1: 423–424 bullying and, 1: 123 in chromosomes and hormones, 1: 423–424, 1: 430, 1: 432, 1: 435 cliques and, 1: 150 in cognition, 1: 423 in competition, 1: 170–171 diagnostic considerations and, 1: 434 in drug abuse, 1: 280–281 in eating disorders, 1: 309 in emotional intelligence, 1: 337 essentialist view of, 1: 431 evolutionary psychology and, 1: 424 in extracurricular activities, 1: 389 feminist critiques of gender and, 1: 430 gender bias and, 1: 428–429 gender differences hypothesis and, 1: 431 gender dysphoria and, 1: 436 gender roles and, 1: 426 gender schema theory and, 1: 424 gender similarities hypothesis and, 1: 430 gender vs. sex and, 1: 421–422, 1: 429 in HIV/AIDS, 1: 477 in identity development, 1: 352, 2: 500–501 integrative models regarding, 1: 426–427 in intimacy, 2: 822 John/Joan case and, 1: 432 language use of, 1: 421, 1: 429 in mathematical and verbal abilities, 1: 423 measurement of, 1: 422–423 multicultural considerations and, 1: 433–434 overreporting of, 1: 422 overt, relational aggression and, 1: 23 peer victimization risk factors and, 1: 22 The Psychology of Sex Differences (Maccoby and Jacklin) and, 1: 422–423 research difficulties and, 1: 422 Rett’s disorder and, 1: 84 social categorization and, 1: 426 social construction theory and, 1: 431 social early learning influences on, 1: 424–425 social identity theory and, 1: 426 social role theory and, 1: 426 sociological influences on, 1: 425–426 in specific language impairment, 1: 169 on standardized tests, 1: 428 STDs and, 2: 797 transgender, transsexual considerations and, 1: 432–433, 1: 436 in visuospatial abilities, 1: 423, 1: 430 “women’s ways of knowing” concept and, 1: 15 Gender identity, 1:435–436 abstinence education and, 1: 1–4 androgyny, 1: 37–38 binary construct of gender and, 1: 430–432 biological influences on, 1: 435–436 chromosomes, hormones and, 1: 423–424, 1: 435 definition of, 1: 435 gender bias and, 1: 428–429 gender identity disorder, DSM and, 1: 37, 1: 434, 1: 436 gender role identity development and, 2: 502 gender schema theory and, 1: 424 multidimensional models of, 1: 435 nature vs. nurture and, 1: 424 social identity perspective on, 1: 435 sociological influences on, 1: 435–436 stage models of, 1: 435 transgender, transsexual labels and, 1: 432–433, 1: 436 Gender schema theory, 1: 424 General intelligence motivation and, 2: 689 vs. multiple intelligences, 2: 712 Charles Spearman’s theory of, 1: 213, 2: 536–537, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 551 Generalizability theory, 1:436–438 decision (D) study vs. , 1: 437 dependability, reliability of behavioral measurements and, 1: 436 ethnography and, 1: 367 field experiments and, 1: 401 Generalizability Coefficient and, 1: 437 object of measurement and, 1: 437 random effects theory and, 1: 437 relative decision, absolute decision and, 1: 437 universe of admissible observations and, 1: 436 universe of generalization and, 1: 437 universe-score variance and, 1: 437 variance components and, 1: 437, 1: 438 (table) Generalized anxiety disorder, 1: 41 Generative learning theory, 1: 189 Gergen, K., 1: 270 Gernsbacher, Morton, 2: 513 Gesell, Arnold maturation research of, 2: 639 naturalistic observation work of, 2: 722 physical systems focus of, 2: 793 Gibson, James perceptual-motor coordination work of, 2: 775, 2: 780 Gifted and talented students, 1:438–443 African American statistics and, 1: 17 Asian American students and, 1: 59 characteristics of, 1: 439–440 cognitive field theory and, 1: 440 Index ———I-29 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-29 creativity and, 1: 194–200 curriculum cultural diversity and, 1: 441 curriculum for, 1: 440–442 halo effect and, 1: 458 higher-order thinking processes and, 1: 441 historic perspective on, 1: 438–439 identification of, 1: 440 minority underrepresentation and, 1: 222 nature vs. nurture and, 1: 439 new view of the gifted and, 1: 439 problems experienced by, 1: 440 products of curriculum and, 1: 441 Schoolwide Enrichment Model and, 1: 199 socioemotional needs of, 1: 443 special education exceptionality of, 2: 925 teaching strategies for, 1: 442–443 terminology regarding, 1: 438 thinking skill strategies used by, 1: 442 Venn diagrams and, 1: 442 See also Acceleration Gilbert, Thomas, 1: 240 Gilligan, Carol Kohlberg’s moral development work and, 2: 563, 2: 684 Given, Barbara, 2: 602 Glaser, Robert criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 201 reality therapy of, 2: 869 Glastra, Folke, 2: 607 Global Assessment of Functioning Scale, 1: 173 Global Commission on International Migration, 2: 502 Goals, 1:443–445 achievement goals and, 1: 444–445, 2: 690–691 approach vs. avoidance achievement goals and, 1: 444, 2: 690–691 cognitive representation element of, 1: 443 commitment element of, 1: 444 competence and, 1: 444 definition of, 1: 443–444 fear of failure and, 1: 394 future image element of, 1: 443–444 goal striving and, 2: 692–693 instructional objectives and, 2: 533–536 internal vs. external factors and, 1: 444–445 mastery-approach vs. mastery-avoidance goals and, 1: 444 mastery vs. performance goals and, 1: 444 object element of, 1: 444 performance-approach vs. performance avoidance goals and, 1: 394, 1: 444 See also Motivation; Motivation and emotion Goddard, Henry, 2: 549 Goldberger, Nancy, 1: 12 Goldstein, Kurt, 2: 636 Goleman, Daniel emotional intelligence work of, 1: 118, 1: 335–336 Goodale, Melvyn, 2: 779 Goodenough, Florence, 2: 722 Gould, Roger, 1: 14 Government Performance and Results Act, 1: 306 Grade-equivalent scores, 1:445–446 development growth reference of, 1: 445 interpolated vs. extrapolated scores and, 1: 445 learning disorders misdiagnosis and, 1: 446 misinterpretation of, 1: 445, 1: 446 norm-referenced tests and, 1: 445, 2: 734–738 reliability of, 1: 446 sensitivity deficiency of, 1: 445–446 Grade retention, 1:446–450 alternative interventions and, 1: 448–449 characteristics of retained students and, 1: 447–448 future directions regarding, 1: 449 Hispanic Americans and, 1: 471 kindergarten retention and, 1: 447, 1: 471 NCLB and, 1: 447 parental concerns regarding, 1: 449 preschool and, 1: 447, 1: 448 in primary grades, 1: 447–448 psychological issues regarding, 1: 448 redshirting, holding out, kindergarten delay and, 1: 448 research evidence against, 1: 446 socioemotional adjustment and, 1: 446, 1: 448 teacher beliefs regarding, 1: 449 Grading, 1:450–453 calculating grades strategies and, 1: 452–453 criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 200–205 dynamic, demanding classroom interaction and, 1: 450 essay test grading strategies and, 1: 451–452 halo effect and, 1: 458–459 holistic grading and, 1: 451 instructional objectives and, 2: 533–536 objective test grading strategies and, 1: 451 Primary Trait Analysis (PTA) scales and, 1: 452 role of effort in, 1: 450 rubrics and, 1: 451–452, 2: 859–860 student learning paradigm of, 1: 450–451 syllabus linking grading and learning and, 1: 451 test-blueprinting concept and, 1: 452 viewpoints on, 1: 450 Graham, Sylvester, 2: 899 Graue, Beth, 1: 448 Gray, John Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus , 1: 431 Greene, Barbara, 2: 519 Greeno, James, 1: 186 Gregorc, Anthony, 2: 600 Gresham, Frank, 2: 585–586 Gronlund, Norman, 1: 203 Grosjean, François, 1: 104 Group counseling therapy, 1: 146 Group Embedded Figures Test, 1: 403 Group Investigation cooperative learning model, 1: 191 GRPQ. See Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (GRPQ) cooperative learning model Guadalupe v. Tempe , 2: 705 Guba, Egon Naturalistic Inquiry (Lincoln and Guba) and, 2: 830 Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (GRPQ) cooperative learning model, 1: 191–192 I-30 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-30 The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals , 1: 360, 1: 361 Guild, P., 2: 703–704 Guilford, J. P. Structure of the Intellect human intelligence model of, 1: 196, 2: 537, 2: 544, 2: 550 Gun Free Schools Act, 1: 250, 1: 252 Guo, Guang, 2: 807 Guskey, Thomas, 1: 111 Gutierrez, K. D., 1: 224 Guttman, Louis, 2: 643 Gysbers, Norman, 2: 867 Habermas, Jürgen, 1: 14 Habituation, 1:455–458 dishabituation and, 1: 456 dishabituation habituates and, 1: 457 empirical properties of, 1: 456–457 examples of, 1: 455 explanation of, 1: 455 extinction of operantly conditioned response and, 1: 457–458 generality and, 1: 457 long-term habituation and, 1: 456–457 misconceptions about, 1: 457–458 object permanence, 2: 742–743 reflex behaviors and, 1: 457 sensitization companion process to, 1: 455–456 spontaneous recovery and, 1: 456 stimulus exposure and, 1: 457 stimulus intensity and, 1: 457 stimulus rate and, 1: 457 stimulus specificity and, 1: 456 variety effects on, 1: 456 Hagerty, Michael, 2: 637 Haidt, Jon, 2: 685 Hake, Barry, 2: 607 Haladyna, Thomas multiple-choice test work of, 2: 709, 2: 710, 2: 711 Hall, G. Stanley adult learning and, 1: 10 infant coding systems work of, 2: 722 recapitualtion theory of, 2: 639 Halo effect, 1:458–460 attractiveness stereotype and, 1: 458–459 in the classroom, 1: 458 cognitive attribution bias of, 1: 458 future research on, 1: 459 history of, 1: 459 Rosenthal effect and, 2: 858–859 Hamilton, David, 2: 946 Hargreaves, Andrew, 2: 984, 2: 985 Harlow, Harry intrinsic motivation research of, 2: 556 monkey attachment studies of, 2: 820 Hartmann, David, 1: 363 Hartshorne, Hugh moral character, cheating work of, 1: 138, 2: 681, 2: 684 Hartup, Willard, 1: 410 Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, 2: 507 Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education (HUGSE), 1: 114 Haslam, S. Alexander, 2: 946 Hathaway, S., 2: 781 Haughton, Eric, 2: 811–812 HayGroup, 1: 336 Hayles, Elisabeth, 1: 11 Head Start, 1:460–465 administration and funding of, 1: 461 assessments, monitoring and, 1: 463 Child Outcomes Framework and, 1: 462 community building focus of, 1: 296, 2: 856 content areas of, 1: 296, 1: 305 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216 demographic characteristics and, 1: 461–462 Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale and, 1: 462 Early Head Start and, 1: 460, 1: 461, 1: 464, 2: 857 ecological theory and, 1: 296 eligibility for, 1: 461 empirical research findings regarding, 1: 463–464, 2: 856–857 grade retention alternative of, 1: 448 Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey and, 1: 464 Head Start Impact Study and, 1: 464 Hispanic American students and, 1: 471 homeless families and, 1: 493 longitudinal research resulting from, 1: 302, 1: 305 “maximum feasible participation” concept and, 1: 460 National Reporting System and, 1: 463 origins of, 1: 460–461 parent-child, provider-child relationships focus of, 1: 296 parent involvement in, 1: 460, 1: 462–463, 2: 856 Performance Standards and Other Regulations of, 1: 462 policy considerations regarding, 1: 464–465 policy councils, committees and, 1: 462–463 Program Assessment Rating Tool and, 1: 464 Program Information Report of, 1: 461 Program Review Instrument for Systems and Monitoring and, 1: 463 Project Follow Through Direct Instruction program and, 1: 242 staff development focus of, 1: 296 standards for evaluating effectiveness of, 1: 306 statistics regarding, 1: 305 Web site of, 1: 300 See also Early Head Start program Health Research Extension Act, 1: 360, 1: 361 Hedgepeth, Evonne, 2: 900 Heine, Steve, 2: 897 Helmich, Joan, 2: 900 Henderson, Patricia, 2: 867 Hermans, Dirk, 1: 342–343 Hernstein, Richard, 1: 96–97, 1: 363 Herr, Edwin, 2: 869 Herrmann, Ned, 2: 600–601 Hertz-Lazarowitz, Rachel, 1: 191 Heward, W., 1: 184 Hiemstra, Roger, 1: 14 High-stakes testing, 1:465–470 appropriate use of, 1: 469–470 consequences of, 1: 466 content or academic standards component of, 1: 465–466 counterproductive behaviors and, 1: 466 criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 200–205 Index ———I-31 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-31 educators’ attitudes affected by, 1: 467–468 explanation of, 1: 465 information distortion using, 1: 466 instructional practice affected by, 1: 466–467 instructional time increase and, 1: 466–467 low-performing student subgroups and, 1: 468–469, 1: 470 multiple-choice tests and, 2: 709–711 National Assessment of Education Progress scores and, 1: 468 National Research Council Committee on Appropriate Test Use and, 1: 469 NCLB and, 1: 225, 1: 379, 1: 465–470 performance or achievement standards component of, 1: 465 requirement for multiple measures and, 1: 469 score inflation and, 1: 468 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing and, 1: 205, 1: 469, 2: 995 student achievement affected by, 1: 468–469 sufficient opportunity to learn the material and, 1: 470 teacher, administrator cheating and, 1: 467 teacher morale and, 1: 467–468 teaching to the test and, 1: 467 test-based accountability systems and, 1: 465–466 validity requirements and, 1: 469 “what you test is what you get” concept and, 1: 470 Hildreth, Gertrude, 1: 439 Hill, Darryl, 1: 436 Hispanic Americans, 1:470–476 acculturation and, 1: 8–9, 1: 472 achievement gap and, 1: 17, 1: 471, 1: 472, 2: 703 American dream, education and, 1: 472 cultural learning styles and, 2: 704 culture, language preservation and, 1: 218, 1: 472 “culture brokers” concept and, 1: 474 demographics, statistics regarding, 1: 471–472 disciplinary actions and, 1: 250 dropout rates and, 1: 471, 1: 472, 1: 474, 2: 703 educational aspirations and, 1: 474–475 ethnic diversity among, 1: 225, 1: 471, 1: 473–474 ethnic identity and, 1: 364–365 ethnicity, poverty and, 2: 703, 2: 806 familisimo, machismo , and marianismo and, 1: 433 family influences and, 1: 399 family obligation, education and, 1: 474–475 gender differences in, 1: 433 generation of immigration and, 1: 474–475 geographic location importance and, 1: 472–473 Head Start programs and, 1: 462 health disparities of, 1: 19, 1: 222 higher education and, 1: 471, 1: 475–476 Hispanic, Latino/a designation and, 1: 218, 1: 226–227, 1: 364–365, 1: 470 illegal immigrant issue and, 1: 470, 1: 471, 1: 474 immigration history of, diversity and, 1: 473–474 kindergarten readiness, parental concerns for, 1: 449 Mixtec cultural flow example and, 1: 227 obesity and, 2: 740 parenting and, 2: 757 peer networks of, 1: 475 school violence and, 2: 704, 2: 884 segmented assimilation and, 1: 473 situational bias and, 1: 221 statistics regarding, 1: 16 test bias and, 1: 221 urban neighborhood contexts and, 1: 472–473 voluntary vs. involuntary status and, 1: 473–474 See also Immigration HIV/AIDS, 1:476–477 African American mortality rates and, 1: 19 American Indians and, 1: 35 gender differences and, 1: 477 GLBT pride and, 2: 902–903 history of, 1: 476 HIV-positive status vs. AIDS and, 1: 476 homelessness and, 1: 493 minority groups and, 1: 222 physical development and, 2: 797–798 prevention focus and, 1: 477 racial and ethnic distribution of, 1: 477 sex education and, 2: 898 sexual activity, pregnancy, STDs and, 2: 797–798 statistics regarding, 1: 476–477 treatment advances and, 1: 476 Hoffman, Lois, 2: 682 Hoffman, Martin empathy work of, 1: 341, 2: 681 Holding therapy, 1: 78 Holmes, Thomas, 1: 446 Holt, L. Emmett Care and Feeding of Children , 2: 755 Holyoak, Keith, 1: 235 Home education, 1:477–485 academic results of, 1: 479 after school activities and, 1: 480 from birth or school withdrawal and, 1: 478 child-led style of, 1: 480 children in and out of school and, 1: 479 criticisms of, 1: 481–482, 1: 484 deschooling and, 1: 480–481 divorced, single parents and, 1: 483 exhausting, time-consuming nature of, 1: 482 family, friend pressures and, 1: 483 financial concerns and, 1: 482 formal qualifications and, 1: 483 growth of, 1: 478 home educator characteristics and, 1: 481 hyperactive label and, 1: 483 international emphasis on, 1: 481 isolation, criticism and, 1: 481–482, 1: 484 late readers and, 1: 482–483 the law and, 1: 477–478 parental pressure and, 1: 481 parent-led style of, 1: 480 performance pressure and, 1: 482 process of, 1: 480 religious motivation and, 1: 478 resources limitations and, 1: 482 separation anxiety accusation and, 1: 484 shift over time and, 1: 479 social skills and, 1: 479–480 special needs children and, 1: 478–479 standardized tests and, 1: 479 statistics regarding, 1: 478 I-32 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-32 transition to school and, 1: 483–484 United Kingdom and, 1: 477, 1: 478, 1: 479, 1: 480, 1: 482, 1: 483, 1: 484 virtual schools and, 2: 1002 Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM), 1:485–490 attribution theories and, 1: 486, 1: 489–490 autonomy provision, parental beliefs and, 1: 488–489 Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAIMI) and, 1: 485, 1: 486, 1: 488, 1: 490 cognitive discrepancy theories and, 1: 486, 1: 489 cognitively stimulating home environment and, 1: 487 competence/mastery theories and, 1: 486, 1: 489 defense of, 1: 485–486 definitions regarding, 1: 485–486 Fullerton Longitudinal Study of, 1: 486–489 Hispanic Americans and, 1: 472, 1: 474–476 home environment defined and, 1: 486 homework and, 1: 494–498 intervention strategies and, 1: 489–490 motivationally gifted vs. motivationally at-risk and, 1: 487 parental motivational practices and, 1: 486–489 pleasure derived from learning process and, 1: 485 research findings regarding, 1: 486–487 role of praise and, 1: 489 socioeconomic status factor and, 1: 486, 1: 487 subject area specificity and, 1: 487–488 See also Self-determination Homeless families, 1:490–494 affordable housing shortage and, 1: 492 African Americans and, 1: 18 causes of, 1: 491–492 definitions regarding, 1: 490–491 domestic violence and, 1: 492 drug abuse and, 1: 279 DSM Axis IV disorders and, 1: 239 early intervention programs and, 1: 301 education consequences of, 1: 493–494 family disruption, dissolution consequences of, 1: 493 food security, hunger consequences of, 1: 493 governmental services, assistance reduction and, 1: 492 health consequences of, 1: 492–493 increase in, 1: 490, 1: 492 migrant children and, 1: 491 minimum wages and, 1: 492 National Alliance to End Homelessness and, 1: 492 natural disasters and, 1: 491 NCLB and, 1: 493–494 Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act and, 1: 491 Home School Legal Defense Association, 1: 477 Homework, 1:494–498 academic achievement and, 1: 494–495, 1: 496, 1: 498 academic excellence movement and, 1: 495, 1: 498 age-related differences and, 1: 496 antihomework movement and, 1: 494 controversy regarding, 1: 494, 1: 497 historic context of, 1: 495–496 implications of, 1: 498 motivational factors in learning and, 1: 496–497, 1: 498 motivational skills development and, 1: 497–498 National Assessment of Educational Progress and, 1: 495 parental involvement, views on, 1: 495, 1: 497–498 statistics regarding, 1: 495 Honey, Peter, 2: 601 Hopson, Janet, 1: 113 Horn, John Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence and, 2: 550 fluid and crystallized intelligence and, 1: 12, 2: 550 Horney, Karen, 2: 819 Houle, Cyril The Inquiring Mind, 1: 11 Houle, Cyril O., 2: 746 Howes, Carollee, 1: 409 HUGSE. See Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education (HUGSE) Hull, Clark, 2: 556 Humanism adult learning and, 1: 15 social learning theory and, 2: 921–922 Humphreys, Lloyd, 2: 660 Hunt, Earl, 2: 550 Hyde, Janet, 1: 430–431 Hymes, Dell, 1: 343 IASA. See Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA) ICMJE. See International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) IDEA. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Identity development, 2:499–502 acculturation and, 1: 8–9 acculturative stress and, 1: 9 achieved identity and, 2: 500 adolescence changes affecting, 2: 499, 2: 501 Asian Americans and, 1: 60 bilingualism and, 1: 107 Black racial identity and, 1: 17 cliques and, 1: 152 cognitive and cultural styles and, 1: 152–157 differentiation-polarization theory and, 2: 984–985 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and, 1: 351–354 ethnic identity development and, 2: 501–502 extracurricular activities and, 1: 389 family influences in, 1: 399–400 foreclosed identity and, 2: 500 gangs and, 1: 415–421 gender differences in, 2: 500–501 gender role identity development and, 2: 502 identity conflicts and, 2: 500 identity crisis, exploration and, 2: 499–500 identity deficits and, 2: 500 identity diffusion and, 2: 500 identity status and, 2: 500 immigrants and, 2: 505 language as a social construct and, 1: 346 learning and, 2: 578 moratorium in, 2: 500 negative identity development and, 2: 500 psychosocial development and, 2: 822 self-conceptions and, 2: 501 self-esteem and, 2: 501 social identity theory and, 1: 426, 2: 984 Index ———I-33 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-33 transgender, transsexual considerations and, 1: 432–433 See also Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development IEP. See Individualized Education Program (IEP) Illich, Ivan Deschooling Society , 1: 481 Immigration, 2:502–508 acculturation and, 2: 503–504, 2: 505, 2: 507 adult education and, 2: 505–506 adulthood and, 2: 505–506 bilingualism and, 2: 504 childhood, adolescence and, 2: 504–505 Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and, 1: 217 code switching concept and, 1: 105, 1: 108, 2: 504 educational credentials and, 2: 505 education interruption and, 2: 504 ESL programs and, 2: 504 family class vs. economic class immigrants and, 2: 503 family influences and, 1: 400 Global Commission on International Migration and, 2: 502 global trends in, 2: 502 identity development and, 2: 505 immigrants subgroup of, 2: 503 Immigration Act of 1907 and, 1: 217 Immigration Acts of 1968 and 1976 and, 1: 217 immigration laws and, 1: 54, 1: 217 international humanitarian workers and, 2: 507 International Organization for Migration and, 2: 502, 2: 503 labor market integration and, 2: 505–506 language acquisition and, 2: 504–505 mental health and, 2: 506–507 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 multicultural education and, 2: 708–709 Naturalization Act of 1790 and, 1: 217 nondiscriminatory assessment and, 2: 504 Patriot Act of 2001 and, 1: 217 protective factors and, 2: 507 refugees subtype of, 2: 503, 2: 506–507 “reverse culture shock” and, 2: 505 segmented assimilation concept and, 1: 473 social network support and, 2: 507 sojourners subtype of, 2: 503, 2: 507 spirituality, religiosity and, 2: 507 survivor guilt and, 2: 507 terminology uses and, 2: 502 See also Hispanic Americans Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, 1: 54 Impara, James, 1: 449 Implicit memory, 2: 656–657 Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA), 2: 730 Inclusion, 2:508–511 Americans with Disabilities Act and, 2: 508–509 best practices of, 2: 509 civil rights and, 2: 508, 2: 625, 2: 667 collaboration plans and, 2: 510, 2: 630 culturally responsive practices and, 2: 511 definitions regarding, 2: 508 dumping and mainstreaming concepts vs. , 2: 508, 2: 604 IDEA and, 2: 509 infrastructures, supports and, 2: 509–510 in-service staff training and, 2: 509 least restrictive placement vs. , 2: 604 legal issues regarding, 2: 508–509 NCLB and, 2: 509 principles regarding, 2: 508 quality education focus of, 2: 508 students with disabilities and, 2: 508, 2: 510 students without disabilities and, 2: 510 system stage strategies and, 2: 509–510 tiered model approach to, 2: 510 See also Mainstreaming Indians. See American Indians and Alaska Natives Indicators of School Crimes and Safety (NCES), 2: 722, 2: 884 Individual differences, 2:511–517 at-risk students and, 2: 514, 2: 515–516 cognitive views of learning, reading and, 2: 511–512 comprehension vs. low-level processes and, 2: 512 discourse-level processes and, 2: 512, 2: 514–515 extratextual factors and, 2: 515 literacy skills crisis and, 2: 511 metacognition, comprehension monitoring and, 2: 515 Perfetti’s verbal efficiency theory and, 2: 513, 2: 514 phonological awareness and, 2: 512, 2: 568–569 prior knowledge and, 2: 515 proposition construction process and, 2: 513 reading comprehension factors and, 2: 511, 2: 512–515 reading skills practice and, 2: 516 sentence-level processes and, 2: 512, 2: 513–515 situational model construction and, 2: 514 syntactic parsing process and, 2: 513 text exposure increase and, 2: 516 text readability improvement and, 2: 516 thinking enjoyment and, 2: 515 word-level processes and, 2: 512–513 word meanings and, 2: 512–513 working memory capacity and, 2: 515 See also Reading comprehension strategies Individualized Education Program (IEP), 2:517–519 behavior disorders and, 1: 92 components of, 2: 518 disabilities and, 1: 245 Elementary and Secondary Education Act and, 2: 517 funding for provisions of, 2: 520 history regarding, 2: 517–518 IDEA and, 2: 517–519, 2: 521–522, 2: 662, 2: 663, 2: 669 IEP team and, 2: 517, 2: 521–522 inclusion and, 2: 509 least restrictive placement and, 2: 603–605, 2: 926 mental health care in schools and, 2: 660–668 mental retardation and, 1: 92, 2: 669 multidisciplinary IEP team and, 2: 518 parent, student involvement in, 2: 517, 2: 519 parent-teacher conferences and, 2: 765–766 preschool disability, early intervention programs and, 1: 304 special education programs and, 2: 926 students with disabilities and, 2: 517 usages of, 2: 519 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 2:519–523 Amendments of 1986 and, 2: 520 assessment and, 1: 60 assistive technology and, 1: 66 autism and, 1: 85 I-34 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-34 Deaf Culture and, 1: 219 disability vs. handicap terminology and, 2: 520 dyslexia and, 1: 289 early intervention programs and, 1: 303, 1: 306–307 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and, 2: 520, 2: 626 eligibility for services under, 2: 521 evaluation for services and, 2: 521 exceptional student education categories and, 1: 175 free, individually appropriate, public education (FAPE) and, 2: 604 Government Performance and Results Act and, 1: 306 importance of, 2: 522 inclusion and, 2: 509 Individual Education Program (IEP) team and, 2: 520, 2: 521–522, 2: 669 Individual Family Services Plan and, 1: 303 Individualized Education Program (IEP) and, 1: 92, 1: 245, 2: 509, 2: 517–519, 2: 520, 2: 521–522, 2: 604, 2: 662, 2: 663 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 and, 2: 520 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 and, 2: 520 Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Education Act and, 2: 520–522 least restrictive environment and, 1: 66–69, 1: 245, 1: 247, 2: 509, 2: 522, 2: 588, 2: 603–605, 2: 626 mainstreaming and, 2: 626 major components of, 2: 519–520 mental health care in schools and, 2: 662, 2: 663 mental retardation and, 2: 521, 2: 669 National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study and, 1: 303–304 NCLB and, 2: 509, 2: 521 parental consent and, 2: 521 service delivery settings and, 2: 588 special education placement decisions and, 2: 604, 2: 925 specific learning disability (SLD) defined in, 2: 584 transition planning and, 1: 248 transition services and, 2: 522 See also Learning disabilities; No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, 2: 520 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, 2: 520 Inductive reasoning, 2:523–524 abduction and, 2: 524 abductive inference and, 2: 524 association and probability assessment in, 2: 523 Bayes’s theorem and, 2: 523, 2: 524 core knowledge and, 2: 524 deductive reasoning vs. , 1: 235–236, 2: 523 example of, 2: 523 form and content focuses in, 2: 523 heuristics and, 2: 523–524 learning environments and, 2: 964 scientific method and, 2: 523 statistical reasoning and, 2: 523 Infant Health and Development Program, 1: 306 Inferential statistics, 2:524–530 Bayesian inference and, 2: 523, 2: 524, 2: 529 bell-shaped distribution and, 2: 527 calculator use and, 1: 125–126 confidence interval and, 1: 178–179, 2: 528–529 deductive reasoning and, 1: 235–236, 2: 524–525 descriptive statistics and, 2: 525 hypothesis testing and, 2: 833 inferential reasoning with quantitative information and, 2: 525 internal validity and, 2: 554–555 interval of nonrejection and, 2: 529 lack of fit and, 2: 530 in longitudinal research, 2: 618–619 meta-analysis and, 2: 672–673 model fitting and, 2: 529–530 normal curve and, 2: 733–734 null hypotheses testing and, 2: 525–526 null hypotheses testing and, alternatives to, 2: 528–530 null hypotheses testing and, criticisms of, 2: 526 one-, two-tailed null hypothesis and, 2: 526, 2: 833 population element in, 2: 525 prior, posterior probability distribution and, 2: 529 probability function in, 2: 525 random sample and, 2: 839–940 regression and, 2: 844–845 rejection region and, 2: 529 research hypothesis and, 2: 525 sampling distribution of the mean and, 2: 527 sampling distributions, test statistics and, 2: 526–528 scientific method and, 2: 888–889 “statistically significant” concept and, 2: 526 statistical significance and, 2: 943–944 T scores and, 2: 961–962 Inheider, Barbel, 1: 162 Inkelas, Karen, 2: 580–581 The Inquiring Mind (Houle), 1:11 Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, 1: 360 Institutional review boards (IRBs), 2:530–533 administrative problems and, 2: 532 Belmont Report and, 1: 360, 2: 531 controversies regarding, 2: 530 excessive regulatory control, “mission creep” and, 2: 530, 2: 532 history of, 2: 531 human subject research definition and, 2: 531 human subjects protected from harm by, 2: 530, 2: 532, 2: 533 informed consent and, 2: 530, 2: 531–532 loss of purpose and, 2: 533 National Research Act and, 2: 531 Office for Human Research Protections and, 1: 360, 2: 531, 2: 533 research abuse examples and, 1: 360, 2: 530 research ethics and, 1: 359, 1: 360 review levels and, 2: 532 Instructional objectives, 2:533–536 affective objectives and, 2: 535 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and, 1: 110–111, 2: 534 cognitive objectives and, 2: 535 contingency contracts and, 2: 536 curriculum development and, 1: 228–234 examples of, 2: 533 instructional goals vs, 2: 533 instructional procedures vs. , 2: 533 intended outcomes and, 2: 534 learning and instruction theories and, 2: 535–536 learning objectives and, 2: 592–597 observable, measurable outcomes and, 2: 534 psychomotor objectives and, 2: 535 Index ———I-35 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-35 reading comprehension strategies and, 2: 840–842 role of in instruction, assessment and, 2: 535 specific verbs usage in, 2: 534 student focus of, 2: 533, 2: 534 unambiguous feature of, 2: 534 written objectives and, 2: 534 written objectives and, ABCD mnemonic of, 2: 534–535, 2: 591 written objectives and, categories of, 2: 535 Intelligence and intellectual development, 2:536–542 The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (Herrnstein, Murray) and, 1: 96–97 Binet intelligence test and, 2: 536–537, 2: 538, 2: 541, 2: 545, 2: 549, 2: 550 cognitive style, cultural diversity and, 1: 221–222 contextual perspective on intellectual development and, 2: 539–540 crystallized intelligence and, 2: 537–538 cultural factors and, 2: 544 emotional influences on, 2: 543 emotional intelligence and, 1: 334–337 environmental factors and, 2: 543 fluid intelligence and, 1: 406–407, 2: 537–538 functioning and development relationship and, 2: 541 gender differences research and, 1: 423 general intelligence theory and, 1: 213, 2: 536–537, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 551 general vs. specific intelligence and, 2: 538–539, 2: 540 gifted and talented students and, 1: 438–443 intellectual dispositions and, 2: 541 intelligence, modern conceptions of, 2: 536–539 intelligence tests and, 2: 538, 2: 539, 2: 544 intelligence theories and, 2: 543–544 life-span perspective on, 2: 542, 2: 544 malnutrition and development and, 2: 630–633 metatheoretical assumptions regarding, 2: 539–540 nature vs. nurture and, 1: 221, 2: 537–538, 2: 540, 2: 543 Ulrich Neisser’s definition of, 2: 536 nonintellective factors and, 2: 541–542 personal agency factor in, 2: 541 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and, 2: 538 poverty and, 2: 807 processes and mechanisms of, 2: 542 representational redescription concept and, 2: 541 “situated cognition” concept and, 1: 15, 1: 264–265, 2: 541, 2: 578 sociocultural learning theory and, 2: 540–541 Spearman’s measurement work in, 2: 536, 2: 537 structural vs. functional intelligence and, 2: 537, 2: 538, 2: 540 triarchic theory of intelligence and, 1: 12, 1: 439, 1: 441, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 689 twin studies of, 2: 537, 2: 543 zone of proximal development concept and, 2: 541 See also Adult learning; Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM); Intelligence quotient (IQ); Intelligence tests; Mental retardation; Multiple intelligences Intelligence quotient (IQ), 2:543–548 African American IQ scores and, 1: 18 The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (Herrnstein, Murray) and, 1: 96–97 crystallized intelligence and, 1: 215 diagnostic, eligibility decisions and, 2: 546–547, 2: 547 (table), 2: 548 DSM classification and, 2: 546, 2: 547 (table) emotional intelligence and, 1: 334–337 fluid intelligence and, 1: 406–407 intelligence tests, current use of, 2: 543, 2: 544, 2: 545–546, 2: 548 intelligence tests, history of, 2: 544–545 intelligence types, adult learning and, 1: 12 intervention planning and, 2: 547 mental age and, 2: 659–660 monitoring progress and, 2: 547 research regarding, 2: 547–548 specific learning disabilities designation and, 2: 584, 2: 585 Stanford–Binet intelligence test and, 1: 50, 2: 549, 2: 551, 2: 642, 2: 941–942 summary regarding, 2: 548 theories of intelligence and, 2: 543–544 See also Intelligence tests Intelligence tests, 2:548–554 academic achievement and, 2: 549 achievement tests vs. , 2: 553 age-normed individual differences and, 2: 539 aptitude tests and, 1: 50–51 Alfred Binet and, 1: 50, 2: 536–537, 2: 538, 2: 541, 2: 545, 2: 549, 2: 550 Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory (CHC), related tests and, 2: 550 contemporary intelligence tests and, 2: 551 criticism of, 2: 551, 2: 553 crystallized intelligence and, 1: 215 culture bias of, 2: 551, 2: 553 current uses of, 2: 545–546, 2: 546 disabilities assessment and, 1: 244 DSM classifications using, 2: 546, 2:547 (table) educational decision making and, 2: 551–552 emotional intelligence and, 1: 334–337 fluid intelligence and, 1: 406–407 Flynn effect and, 1: 18 general vs. specific intelligence and, 2: 538 Group Embedded Figures Test and, 1: 403 history of, 2: 544–545, 2: 549–550 individual testing and, 2: 548–549 intervention planning and, 2: 547 IQ scores from, 2: 545–546, 2: 549 Kaufman Ability Battery for Children and, 2: 551 learning disabilities assessment using, 1: 245, 2: 552–553 mental age and, 2: 659–660 Mental Measurements Yearbooks and, 2: 551 monitoring progress using, 2: 547 norm-referenced tests and, 2: 545–546 question examples and, 2: 549 reaction-time theory and, 2: 550–551 reliability, validity of, 2: 546 score distributions of, 2: 549 Stanford–Binet intelligence test, 1: 50, 2: 549, 2: 551, 2: 642, 2: 941–942 theories of intelligence and, 2: 550 verbal vs. non-verbal, 2: 545 Web sites regarding, 2: 553–554 Wechsler Scales, 2: 551 Woodcock-Johnson Third Edition and, 2: 551 See also Intelligence quotient (IQ); Multiple intelligences I-36 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-36 Internal validity, 2:554–555 attrition and, 1: 401, 2: 544 control and, 1: 387 definition of, 2: 554 enhancement of, 2: 555 experimental, expectancy bias and, 2: 555 explanation of, 2: 554 external validity vs. , 1: 386–387, 2: 554 field experiments and, 1: 400–402 history effect on, 2: 554 instrumentation effect on, 1: 377, 2: 554 maturation effect on, 1: 336–337, 2: 554 pretest-posttest control group design and, 1: 387 regression effect on, 1: 377, 2: 554 selection-maturation interaction effect on, 2: 555 subject selection effect on, 2: 555 testing effect on, 2: 554 threats to, 2: 554–555 International Classification of Diseases (ICD) anorexia nervosa classified in, 1: 307–308 disabilities classification in, 1: 245 drug abuse, substance abuse classified in, 1: 282–283 mental retardation definition, classification in, 2: 668, 2: 670 International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), 1: 358 International Mind, Brain and Education Society, 1: 114 International Organization for Migration, 2: 502 International Phonetic Alphabet, 2: 930 International Reading Association, 2: 609 International Society on Learning Sciences, 1: 320 International Technology Education Association (ISTE), 1: 321 Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC), 1: 129 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, 2:555–560 cognitive evaluation theory and, 2: 557–560 current directions in, 2: 559–560 definitions regarding, 2: 556 divergent thinking and, 1: 267–268 educational psychology implications of, 2: 558–559 effectance motivation and, 2: 556 explanation of, 2: 555–556 extrinsic rewards, intrinsic motivation and, 2: 556–557 historic overview regarding, 2: 556 learned industriousness theory and, 2: 559 Montessori schools and, 2: 678–681 overjustification hypothesis and, 2: 557–558 perceived competence and, 2: 558 relatedness and, 2: 557–558 self-determination theory and, 2: 557–558 social cognitive theory and, 2: 558 social context importance in, 2: 558 theories of, 2: 557–558 See also Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM); Motivation; Motivation and emotion; Self-determination Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurement (Thorndike), 2: 781 Iowa Acceleration Scale, 1: 7 IRIs (informal reading inventories). See Alternative academic assessment (AAA) ISTE. See International Technology Education Association (ISTE) Itard, Jean March, 1: 128 Jacklin, Carol, 1: 422, 1: 430 Jacobson, Lenore, 1: 259 James, William motivation work of, 2: 687, 2: 688 newborn’s visual world and, 2: 775 Jenkins, Joseph, 2: 513 Jensen, Arthur, 2: 550–551 Jensen, Eric, 1: 113–114 Jensen, Lene, 2: 685 Jigsaw cooperative learning model and, 1: 190–191, 1: 270, 2: 967 Jimerson, Shane grade retention research by, 1: 446, 1: 449 Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration Program, 1: 491 Johnson, David cooperative learning, racial prejudice and, 1: 188 Learning Together cooperative learning model and, 1: 188 Johnson, Douglas, 1: 459 Johnson, Lyndon B. affirmative action policies of, 1: 260 Head Start and, 1: 460 Johnson, Marcia, 2: 658 Johnson, Roger, 1: 188 Johnson, W. J., 2: 813 Johnston, Marla, 2: 683 Johnstone, William, 1: 10 Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1: 370 Jonassen, D. H., 1: 319 Joyce, Diana, 1: 174 Jung, Carl androgyny work of, 1: 37 collective unconscious theory of, 2: 818–819 extroverted, introverted temperaments and, 1: 174 personality theories, personality tests and, 1: 53, 2: 600, 2: 781 Just, Marcel, 2: 515 Kaberlandt, Karl Cognitive Capacity Model of attention and, 2: 695–696 moral development work of, 2: 685 reading comprehension work of, 2: 512 Kachru, Braj, 1: 343 Kagan, Jerome infantile determinism and, 2: 682 temperament research of, 1: 330 Kalahr, David, 1: 257–258 Kalat, James, 1: 112 Kallen, Horace, 1: 155 Kamil, Constance, 1: 162 Kanfer, R., 2: 695 Kanner, Leo autism work of, 1: 82, 1: 84, 1: 86 Kant, Immanuel, 2: 563, 2: 684 Kaplan, David, 2: 618 Karmiloff-Smith, Annette, 2: 541–542 Karplus, Robert, 1: 162 Katz, Daniel, 2: 945 Katz, Phyllis, 1: 435 Keller, Fred S., 2: 786 Keller, John, 1: 319 Kelley, Karl, 1: 394 Kellogg, John Harvey, 2: 899 Kelly, Sean, 2: 986 Index ———I-37 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-37 Kereckhoff, Alan, 2: 983 Kernis, Michael, 2: 896 Keys, Ancel, 1: 310 Kidd, Sean, 2: 827 Kilpatrick, William Heard, 2: 679 King, Alison Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning cooperative learning model and, 1: 191–192 university cooperative learning work of, 1: 188 Kinsey, Alfred, 2: 901 Kintsch, Walter, 2: 514 Kirby, Douglas, 2: 900 Kirkpatrick, Donald, 1: 319 Kitt, Ertha, 2:565 (quote) Kliewer, C., 2: 627 Knight, F. B., 1: 459 Knowles, Malcolm, 1: 13 Kochankska, Grazyna parental style work of, 2: 682, 2: 762 Koestler, Arthur, 1:125 (quote) Kohlberg, Lawrence. See Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, 1: 138–139, 1: 268, 2:561–564 cognitive development theory and, 2: 561 cultural factors and, 2: 685 definitions regarding, 2: 561 deontic theory and, 2: 684 dilemma vignettes and, 2: 562, 2: 683 duties vs. rights and, 2: 683, 2: 684 educational implications of, 2: 563 gender-type behavior development and, 1: 424, 1: 435 levels and stages of, 2: 562–563, 2: 825 Piaget’s work and, 2: 561–563, 2: 683 qualitative transformation process and, 2: 684 social/cultural conflict resolution and, 2: 683–684 stages theory of, 2: 561–562 subject responses classifying criteria and, 2: 562–563 validations, controversies, criticisms and, 2: 563 Köhler, Wolfgang, 1: 185 Kolb, David, 2: 601 Koretz, Daniel, 1: 466–467 Kotchick, Beth, 2: 764 Kozma, Robert, 1: 319 Kramer, Michael W., 2: 532 Krashen, Stephen, 1: 346 Krathwohl, Anderson, 1: 111 Krathwohl, David, 1: 441 Krechevsky, Isadore, 1: 186 Kuh, George, 2: 580 Kuhn, Thomas, 1: 14 Kulik, J., 1: 404–405 Lacey, Colin, 2: 984, 2: 985 Ladd, Gary friendships, school adaptation work of, 1: 409 grade retention research of, 1: 448 Landreth, Gary, 2: 869 Language disorders, 2:565–570 academic performance and, 2: 568–569 ADHD and, 2: 566, 2: 567 causation and, 2: 567–568 cooperative principle and, 2: 566 definitions of, 2: 566–567 environmental factors and, 2: 568 form, content, use factors and, 2: 565–566 genetic influence on, 2: 568 hearing loss and, 2: 568 language as multifaceted phenomena and, 2: 563 language importance to human species and, 2: 563 linguistic intelligence and, 2: 712–713 linguistic system basics and, 2: 565–566 phoneme, morpheme units of language and, 2: 565–566, 2: 568 phonological awareness and, 2: 568–569 pragmatics and, 2: 566 prevalence, stability, prognosis of, 2: 567 private speech and, 2: 814–815 sensory, cognitive deficits and, 2: 568 social context and, 2: 566 socialization and, 2: 569–570 specific language impairment (SLI) and, 2: 566, 2: 567, 2: 568 speech disorders and, 2: 927–931 syntax of language and, 2: 566 twin studies of, 2: 568 See also Communication disorders; Speech disorders; Spelling Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 2: 734 Latinas/os. See Hispanic Americans Lau v. Nichols , 2: 705 Lawson, Anton, 1: 162 Layard, Richard, 1: 482 Learned helplessness, 2:570–573 battered woman syndrome and, 1: 277 behavioral outcomes of, 2: 570 burdensomeness, failed belongingness and, 2: 957 causal attributions and, 2: 570, 2: 571–572 current perspectives on, 2: 572 ego threat and, 2: 572 globality attribute and, 2: 572 locus of control attribute and, 2: 571 mastery, performance goals and, 2: 573 mediating cognitions component of, 2: 570 norepinephrine and, 2: 572 outcome contingency component of, 2: 570 research regarding, 2: 571 stability attribute and, 2: 572 students with learning problems and, 2: 572–573 teacher interventions and, 2: 573 Learning, 2:573–579 active process, capacity issues and, 2: 576 adult learning and, 1: 9–15 androgeny vs. pedagogy and, 1: 13 assistive technology devices and, 1: 67–68 attachment relationships promotion of, 1: 73–74, 1: 75 aversive stimuli and, 1: 88–89 awareness and, 2: 577 behaviorism and, 2: 574–576 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning and, 1: 61 brain-relevant education and, 1: 111–118 classical conditioning and, 1: 147–149, 2: 574–575 cognitive revolution and, 2: 574 cognitive view of learning and, 1: 164–165, 2: 575–576 continuity, discontinuity in, 1: 185–187 deductive reasoning and, 1: 235–236 I-38 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-38 discovered vs. constructed knowledge and, 1: 15 dyslexia and, 1: 288–293 educational technology and, 1: 313–321 executive control and, 2: 577 generative learning theory and, 1: 189 habituation and, 1: 455–458 home education and, 1: 474–485 home environment, academic intrinsic motivation and, 1: 485–490 identity and, 2: 578 as information processing, 2: 576–577 information processing framework of, 2: 574 knowledge propositional networks and, 2: 577 knowledge representation and, 2: 576–577 knowledge scripts and, 2: 577 learned helplessness and, 2: 570–573 learning communities and, 2: 578 learning over time and, 2: 577 maturation and, 2: 639–640 metacognition and, 2: 673–676 Montessori schools and, 2: 678–681 motivation and emotion and, 2: 692–696 observable behavior framework of, 2: 573–574 older learners and, 2: 744–748 operant conditioning and, 2: 575–576, 2: 749–751 peer-assisted learning and, 2: 767–768 phonics and, 2: 790–792 self-directed learning and, 1: 14 short- vs. long-term memory and, 2: 575 situated cognition and, 1: 15, 1: 264–265, 2: 541, 2: 578 as social participation, 2: 574, 2: 577–578 sociocognitive learning theory and, 1: 190 sociocultural learning theory, 1: 189–190 strategies of, 2: 577 transformative learning and, 1: 14–15 triarchic theory of intelligence and, 1: 12, 1: 439, 1: 441, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 689 virtual schools and, 2: 1002 “women’s ways of knowing” concept and, 1: 15 See also Cognitive view of learning; Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM); Learning communities; Learning disabilities; Learning objectives; Learning strategies; Learning style; Social learning theory Learning Brain Expo, 1: 114 Learning communities, 2:579–584 academic achievement outcome and, 2: 580 active learning core practice of, 2: 582 cohort programs and, 2: 580 collaboration in, 2: 583 community core practice of, 2: 581 distance learning and, 1: 261–266 diversity core practice in, 2: 581–582 faculty, administrators roles in, 2: 582–583 freshman interest groups and, 2: 580 future considerations regarding, 2: 583–584 history of, 2: 579 home education and, 1: 474–485 integration core practice of, 2: 582 living-learning programs and, 2: 579, 2: 580 paired or clustered course programs and, 2: 580 reflection and assessment core practice of, 2: 582 shared goals around a central theme and, 2: 579 student outcomes associated with, 2: 580–581 student persistence outcome and, 2: 580–581 sustainability issues and, 2: 583 team-taught programs and, 2: 579 virtual schools and, 2: 1002 Learning disabilities, 2:584–591 achievement-discrepancy identification model of, 2: 585 children with learning disabilities prevalence and, 2: 585 comprehension disorders and, 2: 587 devices to improve learning and, 2: 589 diagnosis of, 1: 245 dyscalculia and, 2: 587 dysgraphia and, 2: 587 dyslexia and, 1: 288–293, 1: 290–291, 2: 586–587 early detection importance and, 1: 245 explicit teaching methods and, 1: 384–385 federal legislation definitions of, 2: 584 feedback instruction method and, 2: 589 fluency disorders, 2: 587 grouping variations instruction method and, 2: 589–590 guided practice instruction method and, 2: 589 IDEA and, 2: 521, 2: 584, 2: 588 inclusion and, 2: 508–511 instructional approaches to, 2: 587–590 intelligence test IQ scores and, 2: 546–547, 2: 552–553 iodine deficiency and, 2: 632 IQ scores and, 1: 245, 2: 584, 2: 585 language disorders and, 2: 565–570 learned helplessness and, 2: 572–573 learning strategy instruction and, 2: 590 least restrictive placement and, 2: 604 malnutrition and development and, 2: 630–6

bundet

33 math disabilities and, 2: 587 metacognition and, 2: 587, 2: 673–676 modeling instruction method and, 2: 589 NCLB and, 2: 586 reading comprehension disorders and, 2: 587 reading decoding disorders and, 2: 586–587 reading fluency disorders and, 2: 587 reciprocal questioning instruction method and, 2: 589 response to instruction (RTI) model to identify, 1: 245, 2: 585–586 scaffolding instruction method and, 2: 588–589, 2: 630, 2: 863–864 service delivery settings and, 2: 588 spelling disorders and, 2: 587 statistics regarding, 1: 245 written language disorders and, 2: 587 See also Disabilities; Learning strategies; Special education Learning objectives, 2:591–592 ABCD mnemonic and, 2: 534–535, 2: 591 affective objectives and, 2: 592 ambiguity reduction using, 2: 592 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and, 2: 592 continuity, discontinuity in learning and, 1: 185–187 curriculum development and, 1: 228–234 definition of, 2: 591 instructional objectives and, 2: 533–536 psychomotor taxonomy and, 2: 592 Index ———I-39 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-39 Learning strategies, 2:592–597 acquisition stage and, 2: 593–594 adaptation stage and, 2: 596 application of learned skills and, 2: 595 cognitive view of learning and, 1: 164–165 cueing, prompting, modeling and, 2: 594 data-based decision making systems and, 2: 596–597 deductive reasoning and, 1: 235–236 discrete trial training and, 2: 593 environmental factors and, 2: 594 failure effects and, 1: 393–394 fluency building stage and, 2: 594–595 guided practice and, 2: 594 instructional feedback and, 2: 594–595 instructional hierarchy and, 2: 593–596 learner and learner’s environment interaction and, 2: 592–593 learning and assessment link and, 2: 593 learning definition and, 2: 592–593 learning style and, 2: 597–602 maintenance, generalization stage and, 2: 595–596 mnemonics and, 2: 676–677 Montessori schools and, 2: 678–681 norm-referenced fluency aims and, 2: 595–596 older learners and, 2: 744–748 performance-based assessment and, 2: 593 practice and, 2: 595 reinforcement to support practice and, 2: 595–596 response to intervention (RTI) models and, 2: 596 student response tracking and, 2: 594 Learning style, 2:597–603 action-oriented learners and, 2: 600 aptitude and, 1: 47–50 classical conditioning and, 1: 147–149 cognitive processing models of, 2: 599–601 concrete vs. abstract learners and, 2: 600 connotation of labels and, 2: 602 conservation and, 1: 181–182 continuity, discontinuity in learning and, 1: 185–187 deductive reasoning and, 1: 235–236 dyslexia and, 1: 288–293 field-dependent vs. field-independent perception and, 2: 599 importance of, 2: 597–598 individual differences in, 2: 597, 2: 599–600 integrated approach regarding, 2: 602 kinesthetic sensory modes and, 2: 599 learner diversity and, 2: 598 learning process models of, 2: 598, 2: 601 “learning to learn” concept and, 2: 598 left- and right-brain models of, 2: 600 logical learners and, 2: 600 measurement of, 2: 601–602 mind styles model of, 2: 600 modifiability of, 2: 598, 2: 601 Montessori schools and, 2: 678–681 motivation and emotion and, 2: 692–696 older learners and, 2: 744–748 peer assisted learning and, 2: 767–768 perceptually and environmentally based theories of, 2: 599 personality type theory of, 2: 600 preferences vs. stable traits and, 2: 598 random processing learners and, 2: 600 reflective learners and, 2: 600 self-awareness of learner and, 2: 598 sensory preference model of, 2: 599 sequential vs. random learners and, 2: 600 simultaneous learners and, 2: 600 thinking and intellectual styles and, 2: 599, 2: 600–601 validity of models and, 2: 602 values-based learners and, 2: 600 Learning Together cooperative learning model, 1: 191 Least restrictive placement, 2:603–605 Americans with Disabilities Act and, 2: 603 analytic frameworks for, 2: 605 assistive technology and, 1: 66–69 disabled students and, 1: 247 discrimination considerations and, 2: 603 Education of the Handicapped Act and, 1: 245, 2: 626, 2: 871, 2: 925 IDEA legislation and, 1: 247, 2: 509, 2: 522, 2: 588, 2: 603–605, 2: 626 inclusion and, 2: 509 Individualized Education Program (IEP) and, 2: 604 least restrictive environment legal principle and, 2: 603 mainstreaming, inclusion terminology vs. , 2: 604, 2: 626 procedural process outcome and, 2: 604 service delivery settings and, 2: 588 special education placement decisions and, 2: 604, 2: 925, 2: 926 understanding the principle of, 2: 603–604 See also Learning disabilities; Mainstreaming; Special education Leggett, Ellen, 1: 393 Lei, Mo, 1: 257 Lenning, Oscar learning communities research of, 2: 579, 2: 580, 2: 582 Leone, Peter, 2: 885 Lepper, Mark extrinsic reward, intrinsic motivation work of, 2: 556 overjustification hypothesis and, 2: 557–558 Lewin, Kurt, 2: 723 Lewis, Jeffrey cultural flow networks research of, 1: 227 learning objectives research of, 2: 592 Life-long learning, 2:605–608 accelerated degree programs and, 2: 606 adult development across the life span and, 2: 606–607 adult learning and, 1: 9–15 andragogy field and, 2: 607 childhood learning vs. , 2: 606 distance learning and, 1: 261–266 explanation of, 2: 605–606 G.I. Bill effect on, 2: 608 globalization and, 2: 607, 2: 608 higher education and, 2: 606 individualization and, 2: 607, 2: 608 recent historical context of, 2: 607–608 technology and information revolution and, 2: 606 virtual classroom and, 2: 606 work place changes and, 2: 607–608 Likert, Renis, 2: 643 Lincoln, Yvonna Naturalistic Inquiry (Lincoln and Guba) and, 2: 830 Lindquist, E. F., 2: 936 I-40 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-40 Lindsley, Ogden, 2: 808 Linn, Robert, 1: 203 Lippman, Walter, 2: 945 Lipsey, Mark, 2: 885 Literacy, 2:608–616 ability to read and write and, 2: 608–609 academic English and, 2: 610–611 beginning literacy and, 2: 612–613 being highly educated and, 2: 609 bilingualism and, 2: 612 citizenship and, 2: 609 definitions regarding, 2: 608–609 demands of daily life and, 2: 609 development toward independence and, 2: 613–614 educational opportunities and, 2: 609 English complexity and, 2: 613–614 family literacy and, 2: 612 future directions in, 2: 615–616 integrated approach towards, 2: 616 language acquisition with, 2: 611–612 learning to read and, 2: 613–614 literacy crisis and, 2: 511, 2: 609, 2: 610 literacy programs and, 2: 614–615 media literacy and, 2: 649–652 National Assessments of Adult Literacy and, 2: 721 NCLB and, 2: 609 phonics and, 2: 790–792 policy debates regarding, 2: 609–610 proficiency, fluency and, 2: 614 reading comprehension strategies and, 2: 840–842 reading to learn and, 2: 614 social, cultural competencies and, 2: 610 social or cultural group characteristic of, 2: 609 socioeconomic conditions and, 2: 615 spelling and, 2: 931–933 Liu, W. M., 2: 910 Lockhart, R. S., 2: 623 Loeb, Susanna, 1: 463–464 Loeb, Valeria Lee, 1: 463–464 Loftus, Elizabeth, 1: 343 Long, Huey, 1: 14 Long, Michael, 1: 346 Longitudinal research, 2:616–620 Abecedarian Project, 2: 853 analysis of, 2: 618–619 Carolina Abecedarian Project, 1: 302 change feature of, 2: 616 Chicago Child-Parent Centers, 1: 302 cohort consistency feature of, 2: 616–617 cohort number and, 2: 617 cross-sectional research vs. , 1: 206 data waves and, 2: 617–618 definition of, 2: 616 design of, 2: 617–618 Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies-Birth Cohort, 1: 302, 2: 721 Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (ECLS-K), 1: 447, 2: 721 early intervention research and, 1: 302 on eating disorders, 1: 311 experimental design of, 1: 378 Framingham Heart Study and, 2: 853 Fullerton Longitudinal Study, 1: 485–489 future directions in, 2: 619 investigation feature of, 2: 617 of Kohlberg’s moral development stages, 2: 563 on language disorders, 2: 567, 2: 569 measurement and, 2: 618 Milwaukee Project, 2: 853 National Center for Education Statistics and, 2: 720–722 National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 1: 303–304 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, 1: 474 on parental-children self-perceptions, 1: 497 on parental expectations, student achievement, 2: 753–754 on parenting styles, 2: 764 penal conditioning effect and, 2: 618 Perry Preschool Project, 1: 302, 2: 853 Pre-Elementary Educational Longitudinal Study, 1: 304 Project CARE, 2: 853 qualitative research methods and, 2: 827–832 regression analysis and, 2: 618–619 single-subject design of, 2: 619 on temperament, 1: 330 test practice effect and, 2: 618 time dimension feature of, 2: 616, 2: 617, 2: 618 time series design of, 2: 618 variables in, 2: 618 See also Head Start Long-term memory (LTM), 2:620–624 brain mechanisms of, 2: 621 contextual reinstatement, retrieval cues and, 2: 622, 2: 623 control processes of, 2: 621 emotion and memory and, 1: 338–340 encoding specificity theory of, 2: 622 episodic memory and, 1: 348–350, 1: 404, 2: 620, 2: 621–623, 2: 655 examples of, 1: 404 explicit memory and, 1: 383–384 false memory and, 2: 622–623 flashbulb memories and, 1: 403–406, 2: 657 future research regarding, 2: 624 grouping or categorizing techniques to improve, 2: 623 interference theory of, 2: 622 learning process and, 2: 576 mental imagery memory aids and, 2: 623 mnemonics and, 2: 676–677 natural language mediator technique and, 2: 623 overprinting, memory distortion theory of, 2: 622 perceptual memory and, 2: 621 perceptual moment hypothesis and, 2: 620, 2: 624 procedural memory and, 1: 404, 2: 621 repetition, spacing to improve, 2: 623 schemas and, 2: 864–866 semantic memory and, 1: 404, 2: 620, 2: 621, 2: 623–624 short-term memory and, 2: 621 theories of, 2: 620 theories of forgetting and, 2: 621–623 trace decay theory of, 2: 621–622 working memory and, 2: 621 See also Adult learning; Episodic memory; Memory; Semantic memory Lorber, Michael, 2: 762 Lourenço, Orlando, 2: 684 Index ———I-41 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-41 Love, Anna Goodsell, 2: 583 Lozanov, Georgi, 1: 345 LTM. See Long-term memory (LTM) Lubart, Todd, 1: 196 Lubienski, Chris, 1: 484 Luckasson, R., 2: 670 Ludwig, Jens, 1: 464 Lukas, Susan, 1: 281 Lysynchuk, L. M., 2: 840 Maccoby, Eleanor, 1: 424, 1: 430, 2: 763 MacGregor, Jean, 2: 580–581 Mackey, William, 1: 104 MacMillan, D. L., 2: 704 Macro-intersystem voices on the brain and, 1: 114–115, 1:115 (figure) Mager, Bob instructional objectives and, 2: 533 instructional systems design work of, 1: 319 learning objectives and, 2: 591 Magliano, Joseph, 2: 514–515 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 1: 112 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 1: 112 Magnet schools, 1: 132 Main, Mary, 1: 77 Mainstreaming, 2:625–630 access with support and, 2: 630 authentic assessment and, 2: 629–630 bilingual education and, 1: 99 building on existing literacies and, 2: 629 civil rights tenants and, 2: 508, 2: 625, 2: 667 cooperative instruction and, 2: 630 definitions regarding, 2: 625 Education for All Handicapped Children Act and, 2: 626 ESL and, 1: 347 friendships, personal relationships and, 2: 630 inclusion vs. , 2: 508 inclusive education terminology and, 2: 625 indigenizing the mainstream and, 1: 36 islands in the mainstream approach to, 2: 626 Least Dangerous Assumption and, 2: 628 least restrictive placement vs. , 2: 604, 2: 626 listening to affected people and, 2: 630 multiple intelligences and, 2: 629 natural proportions and, 2: 629 origins of, 2: 625–626 PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and, 2: 625–626 parent-teacher conferences and, 2: 765–766 presumption of competence principle and, 2: 628 purposeful inclusion, citizenship and, 2: 628–629 race, class, inclusion/exclusion and, 2: 628 research regarding, 2: 627–628 scaffolding and, 2: 588–589, 2: 630, 2: 863–864 special education segregation and, 2: 628 teacher deals and, 2: 626 teacher observation importance and, 2: 629 unconditional, purposeful inclusion and, 2: 627 universal instruction design and, 2: 629 zone of proximal development and, 2: 630 Malnutrition and development, 2:630–633 the adequate vs. the best, 2: 632–633 AHA, DHA fatty acids and, 2: 632–633 “failure to thrive” and, 2: 631–632 growth measurements and, 2: 631 implications of, 2: 633 iodine deficiency and, 2: 632 iron deficiency and, 2: 632 malnutrition criteria and, 2: 631 nutrition, exercise, body image and, 2: 796 protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) and, 2: 630–632 timing of malnutrition and, 2: 631 See also Eating disorders Mann, Horace, 2: 935 Mantzicopoulos, Panayota, 1: 447 Marcia, James, 1: 354 Marcuse, Herbert, 2: 899 Markman, Lisa, 2: 758 Marland, Sydney, 1: 438 Marshall, Laura Huber, 2: 519 Martin, G., 1: 184 Martin, James, 2: 519 Marzano, Robert, 1: 111 Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs, 2:633–639, 2: 634 (figure) by category, level, and description, 2: 633, 2: 635 (table) curriculum development and, 1: 229 deficiency needs and, 2: 633–634 evaluative comments regarding, 2: 637–638 growth needs and, 2: 633, 2: 634 humanistic, transpersonal psychology and, 2: 638 humanistic adult education and, 1: 14 Abraham Maslow and, 2: 639 metaneeds and, 2: 634–635 metapathologies and, 2: 635 nature and dynamics of, 2: 634 Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) and, 2: 637 self-actualization and, 2: 636–637 society, culture, and dynamics of, 2: 635–636 Mason, Charlotte, 2: 679 Masterman, Len, 2: 651 Masters and Johnson study of human sexual response, 2: 899 Math disabilities, 2: 587 Matlin, Margaret, 1: 342 Matthews, Gerald, 1: 336 Matthews, Roberta S., 2: 581 Maturation, 2:639–640 Gesell’s work in, 2: 639–640 heredity focus in, 2: 639 individual differences in, 2: 640 infant development studies and, 2: 640 Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs and, 2: 633–639 motivation and emotion and, 2: 692–696 principle of development direction and, 2: 639 principle of functional asymmetry and, 2: 639 principle of individuating maturation and, 2: 639–640 principle of principle of self-regulatory fluctuation and, 2: 640 principle of reciprocal interweaving and, 2: 639 school readiness and, 2: 876–878 May, Mark moral character, cheating work of, 1: 138, 2: 681, 2: 684 Mayer, John emotional intelligence work of, 1: 334, 1: 335, 1: 336, 1: 337 Mayer, Matthew, 2: 885 McCabe, Donald, 1: 137, 1: 140 I-42 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-42 McCall, W. A., 2: 961 McCarthy, Bernice 4MAT teaching and learning model of, 1: 118, 2: 601 McCarthy, Teresa, 1: 101 McDaniel, Mark, 1: 256 McDermott, Kathleen B., 2: 658 McKeown, Margaret, 2: 516 McKinley, J., 2: 781 Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act, 1: 491 McKinney-Vento programs, 1: 491 McLoyd, Vonnie, 2: 854 McNamara, Danielle, 2: 516 Mean, 2:640–641, 2: 641 (table) computation steps and, 2: 641 formula for computation of, 2: 640–641 median vs. , 2: 653 mode and, 2: 678 standard deviation, variance and, 2: 934–935 T scores and, 2: 961–962 Measurement, 2:641–647 alternative academic assessment and, 1: 25–31 assessment vs. , 1: 60 assignment of numbers according to rules and, 2: 641–642 Binet’s numerical mental age concept and, 2: 642 cognitive domain scaling methods and, 2: 643 covert psychological traits measurement and, 2: 644 generalizability theory, 1: 436–438 IQ test and, 2: 642 Item Response Theory and, 2: 644 “just noticeable difference” early psychological measure and, 2: 642 Keju system, Chinese civil service examination and, 2: 642 Likert scale, 2: 643 mean and, 2: 640–641 measurement error and, 2: 644 median and, 2: 652–654 mental age and, 2: 659–660 mode and, 2: 678 multiple-choice tests and, 2: 709–711 nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio scales of, 2: 643–644 norm-referenced tests and, 2: 734–738 norm- vs. criterion-referenced interpretation and, 2: 644 percentile rank and, 2: 772–774 personality tests and, 2: 780–786 reliability of, 2: 644–645 Royal Egyptian Cubit, earliest known measure and, 2: 642 scaling and, 2: 642–644 semantic differential scaling method and, 2: 643 standard deviation, variance and, 2: 934–935 standard scores and, 2: 774, 2: 939–941 validity of, 2: 645–647 See also Aptitude tests; Evaluation; Longitudinal research; Measurement of cognitive development Measurement of cognitive development, 2:647–649 cognitive development and school readiness and, 1: 162–163 conclusions regarding, 2: 648 measurement terminology and, 2: 647 Piaget and, 2: 647–648 Rasch model of, 2: 647, 2: 648, 2: 649 scales of, 2: 648 Uzgiris-Hunt Ordinal Scales of Psychological Development, 2: 648 Media literacy, 2:649–652 access, analyze, evaluate, communicate messages in, 2: 649 Alliance for a Media Literate America and, 2: 652 in Asia, 2: 651 in Canada, 2: 649 critical analysis instruction method of, 2: 651 definition of, 2: 649 English language arts education and, 2: 651–652 European Union and, 2: 649 in Great Britain, 2: 649 health education and, 2: 652 key concepts of, 2: 649–650 literacy concept expansion and, 2: 649 programs of, 2: 651 role-playing, simulation, media comparison-contrast activities and, 2: 651 social learning theory, Bandura and, 2: 919, 2: 920–921 youth media programs and, 2: 652 Median, 2:652–654 calculation of, 2: 653 central tendency of the distribution and, 2: 653 definition of, 2: 653 in even numbered distribution, 2: 653 mean, mode relationship with, 2: 653–654 mean and, 2: 640–641, 2: 653 mode and, 2: 678 of ordinal and interval data, 2: 653 percentile rank and, 2: 772–774 quantitative research and, 2: 652–653 standard deviation, variance and, 2: 934–935 Meier, Deborah, 2: 760 Meiklejohn, Alexander, 2: 579 Memory, 2:654–659 adult learning and, 1: 9–15, 2: 747 anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia and, 2: 657 autobiographical memories and, 1: 338 brain mechanisms of, 2: 621 control processes of, 2: 621 differential task performance and, 2: 657 emotion and memory and, 1: 338–340 encoding, storage, retrieval stages of, 2: 658 episodic memory and, 1: 348–350 explicit memory and, 1: 383–384, 2: 654, 2: 656 eyewitness testimony and, 1: 338–339 flashbulb memories and, 1: 339–340, 1: 403–406, 2: 657 free vs. cued recall test of, 2: 656 implicit memory and, 2: 656–657 importance of study regarding, 1: 404 improving memory performance and, 2: 654, 2: 658–659 learning disability memory devices and, 2: 589 long-term memory and, 2: 655 massed vs. spaced practice and, 2: 659 memory distortions and, 2: 654, 2: 657–658 memory systems and, 2: 654–655 memory tests and, 2: 654, 2: 655–656 mnemonic devices and, 2: 534–535, 2: 589, 2: 591, 2: 658, 2: 676–677 part-set cueing effect on, 2: 656 priming experiments and, 2: 657 prior knowledge framework and, 2: 658 recognition test of, 2: 656 Index ———I-43 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-43 reconstruction test of, 2: 656 relearning test of, 2: 656 retention, observational learning and, 2: 744 schemas and, 2: 657 semantic vs. episodic memory and, 1: 349, 2: 655 sensory memory and, 2: 654–655 short-term vs. long-term, 1: 404, 2: 655 traumatic events memory and, 1: 340 See also Emotion and memory; Episodic memory; Long-term memory (LTM); Semantic memory; Short-term memory; Working memory Mental age, 2:659–660 age-equivalent score and, 2: 659–660 chronological age vs. , 2: 659 controversy regarding, 2: 660 definition of, 2: 659 IQ measurement and, 2: 659–660 See also Intelligence tests Mental health care in schools, 2:660–666 access and utilization of, 2: 661–662 of American Indians, Alaska Natives, 1: 34–35, 1: 222 conclusions regarding, 2: 665 continuum of services and, 2: 664–665 estimates of needs and, 2: 660–661 family influences and, 1: 398 IDEA and, 2: 662, 2: 663 IEP and, 2: 662, 2: 663 of immigrants, 2: 506 New Freedom Commission on Mental Health and, 2: 662, 2: 665 promotion, prevention focus and, 2: 664 of refugees, 2: 506–507 school-based health centers and, 2: 664 school-community partnerships and, 2: 661, 2: 663–664 school counselor and, 2: 662–663 school nurse and, 2: 663 school psychologist and, 2: 663 school social worker and, 2: 663 screening, identification, early intervention and, 2: 664–665 service barriers to, 2: 661 of sojourners, 2: 507 special education services and, 2: 662 suicide behavior and, 2: 954, 2: 955–956 treatment, referral services and, 2: 665 universal interventions and, 2: 664 Mental retardation, 2:666–671 adaptive behavior skills and, 2: 669–670 African Americans8overrepresentation and, 1: 17 applied behavior analysis and, 1: 44, 1: 47 assessment of, 2: 669–670 Binet-Simon measurement scale of, 1: 50 civil rights and, 2: 508, 2: 625, 2: 667 classification systems of, 2: 670 clinical judgment measurement of, 2: 667 definitions regarding, 2: 667–668 diagnosis of, 2: 668–669 discriminatory attitudes and, 2: 666 DSM multiaxial classification system and, 1: 338, 1: 339, 2: 546, 2: 547 (table), 2: 668, 2: 670 future research directions in, 2: 671 history and terminology of, 2: 666–667 IDEA and, 2: 521, 2: 669 Individualized Education Program and, 1: 92, 2: 669 institutionalization and, 2: 667 intelligence test IQ scores and, 2: 546, 2:547 (table), 2: 552–553, 2: 667, 2: 668, 2: 669, 2: 670 malnutrition and development and, 2: 630–633 nature vs. nurture theorists and, 1: 221 normalization principle and, 2: 667 physical and sensory challenges and, 2: 669 Pre-Elementary Educational Longitudinal Study and, 1: 304 prevalence of, 2: 666 risk factors of, 2: 670–671 terminology regarding, 2: 667 Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales and, 2: 669 Merriam, Sharan, 1: 14 Merrotsky, Peter, 1: 6 Merton, Robert, 1: 259 Met, Mary, 2: 985–986 Meta-analysis, 2:672–673 cross-sectional research and, 1: 213 data aggregation and comparison in, 2: 672 of Direct Instruction studies, 1: 242 effect size analysis and, 2: 672 of emotional intelligence, 1: 337 of friendship, 1: 410 of gender differences, 1: 430–431 of grade retention, 1: 446 of home education, 1: 479 of homework, 1: 496 of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, 2: 556 limitations of, 2: 673 of parental expectations, student achievement and, 2: 753–754 product-moment correlation coefficient and, 2: 672 research errors corrected using, 2: 672 of school violence prevention, 2: 885 of self-efficacy, 2: 672 standardized group mean difference and, 2: 672 of undergraduate cheating, 1: 138 Metacognition and learning, 2:673–676 calibration of comprehension and, 2: 675 cognition and, 2: 673–674 comprehension and, assessing knowledge about, 2: 674 comprehension and, assessing monitoring of, 2: 674–675 declarative knowledge and, 2: 673–674, 2: 700 error detection paradigm and, 2: 675 illusion of knowing and, 2: 675 learning style and, 2: 597–602 meta memory, meta comprehension and, 2: 673 monitoring cognition and, 2: 674 person, task, strategy knowledge and, 2: 674 procedural knowledge and, 2: 674 special learning disabilities and, 2: 587 See also Cognitive view of learning Meter, Richard, 1: 256 Meter v. Nebraska , 2: 756 Mezirow, Jack, 1: 14, 2: 607 Mieichenbaum, Donald, 2: 869 Military model of child care, 1: 296–298 health, safety provisions in, 1: 297 Military Child Care Act of 1989 and, 1: 296 National Association for the Education of Young Children and, 1: 297 I-44 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-44 “off” hours services and, 1: 297 parent involvement and, 1: 297–298 single point of entry method of, 1: 297 staff training, compensation focus of, 1: 298 standards, certification, regulations and, 1: 297 Mill, John Stuart, 2: 684 Miller, Douglas, 1: 464 Miller, Joan, 2: 685 Miller, M. F., 1: 63 Miller, Neil, 2: 920 Miller, W. R., 1: 63 Milligram, Stanley, 1: 360 Millis, Keith, 2: 514–515 Mills v. the District of Columbia , 2: 518, 2: 705 Milner, David, 2: 779 Milwaukee Project, 2: 853 Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Vygotsky), 2: 1017 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 2: 781 clinical scales of, 2: 784 computerized scoring of, 2: 784 uses of, 2: 784 validity measures and, 2: 783 Mischel, Walter, 1: 334–335 Mnemonics, 2:676–677 acronyms and, 2: 676–677 criticism of, 2: 677 information organization aids and, 2: 676 keywords and, 2: 677 learning objectives and, 2: 534–535, 2: 591 memory performance improvement and, 2: 658 method of loci technique and, 2: 676 peg word method and, 2: 677 Mode, 2:678 central tendency measured by, 2: 678 common mistake in computation of, 2: 678 mean and, 2: 640–641 median and, 2: 652–654 sample data example of, 2: 678 (table) standard deviation, variance and, 2: 934–935 Modeling aggression and, 2: 921 anxiety treatment and, 1: 43 growth curve modeling and, 1: 43 inhibition, disinhibition and, 2: 922 learning disabilities, 2: 589 mastery vs. coping modeling and, 2: 744 observational learning and, 2: 744, 2: 922, 2: 965 prosocial behavior, peer influences and, 2: 771 response facilitation and, 2: 922 social learning theory and, 1: 93, 2: 771, 2: 921, 2: 922 value-added modeling and, 1: 43 Mohan, Bernard, 1: 346–347 Moivre, Abraham de, 2: 734 Mollica, Richard, 2: 507 Montessori, Maria, 1: 439, 2: 678, 2: 739 (quote) See also Montessori schools Montessori schools, 2:678–681 American Montessori Society and, 2: 679 Association Montessori Internationale and, 2: 679 critics of, 2: 679 developmental planes focus of, 2: 680 disabled students and, 2: 678–679 environment focus of, 2: 679, 2: 680 history of, 2: 678–679 intrinsic motivation and, 2: 680 the method and, 2: 679–680 public Montessori programs and, 2: 679 self-directed work cycle element of, 2: 680 sustained concentration element of, 2: 680 traditional vs. progressive type of, 2: 680–681 Moore, DeWayne, 2: 675 Moral development, 2:681–686 cultural factors and, 2: 681, 2: 685–686 deontic vs. beneficence principle and, 2: 684 domains of social rules and, 2: 684 gender differences in, 2: 684 individual differences in, 2: 681 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development and, 1: 138–139, 1: 268, 2: 561–563, 2: 683–684 maturation and, 2: 639–640 moral conduct and, 2: 681 morality of rights, community, divinity and, 2: 685 The Moral Judgement of the Child (Piaget) and, 2: 561, 2: 682 moral judgment, reasoning and, 2: 682–684 moral thought vs. action and, 2: 684–685 objective vs. subjective responsibility and, 2: 683 Oedipal conflict and, 2: 681–682 parenting, guilt and, 2: 681–682 Piaget’s work in, 2: 561, 2: 682–683, 2: 684 shame-guilt distinction and, 2: 682 social conventions and, 2: 684 The Moral Judgment of the Child (Piaget), 2: 561, 2: 682 Motivation, 2:686–692 achievement goals and, 2: 690–691 achievement motives and, 2: 690 achievement values and, 2: 690 African American achievement patterns and, 1: 18–19 approach-avoidance achievement motivation and, 2: 690–691 approach vs. avoidance motivation and, 2: 687–688 as a causal agent, 2: 687 competence motivation and, 2: 688–689, 2: 691 conceptualization of, 2: 687–688 conscious vs. unconscious processes of, 2: 688 creativity and, 1: 194–200 crystallized intelligence and, 1: 214 definitions of, 2: 686–687 disidentification from achievement values and, 2: 690 educational settings and, 2: 688–689 efficacy vs. outcome expectations and, 2: 689 emotional intelligence competency of, 1: 335 entity vs. incremental implicit theories of ability and, 2: 691 extracurricular activities and, 1: 388, 1: 389 failure feedback and, 1: 393–394 general intelligence and, 2: 689 goals and, 1: 443–445 habituation and, 1: 455–458 home environment, academic intrinsic motivation and, 1: 485–490 homework, academic achievement and, 1: 496–498 implicit theories of ability and, 2: 691 implicit vs. explicit achievement motives and, 2: 690 integrative models of, 2: 691–692 Index ———I-45 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-45 intelligence, ability and, 2: 689 internal vs. external factors affecting, 2: 688 intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation and, 2: 555–560 learned helplessness and, 2: 570–573 learning and, 2: 745–746 norm-referenced tests and, 2: 737 parent, teacher expectations and, 1: 497, 2: 753–754 perceived competence and, 2: 689 quotation regarding, 1: 455 tracking and, 2: 983–988 why vs. how of behavior and, 2: 687 See also Home environment and academic intrinsic motivation (AIM); Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation; Motivation and emotion; Self-determination; Self-efficacy Motivation and emotion, 2:692–696 attribution theory and, 2: 693 cognitive capacity and, 2: 695–696 control-value theory and, 2: 694–695 expectancy-value theories and, 2: 693–695 future research directions and, 2: 696 goal striving and, 2: 692–693 moods, cognition and, 2: 695 See also Motivation; Self-determination; Self-esteem Motor development, 2:696–702, 2: 795 ages of early motor skill onset and, 2: 697, 2:697 (table) bodily/kinesthetic intelligence and, 2: 713–714 brain correlations with, 2: 701 cognitive, social, emotional interactions with, 2: 700–701 crawling and walking and, 2: 699–700, 2: 701 culture, environment and, 2: 697 declarative memory and, 2: 673–674, 2: 700 deferred imitation and, 2: 700 developmental psychology and, 2: 702 drawing, writing and, 2: 701 dynamic systems approach to, 2: 698 emotional development and, 2: 701 gross vs. fine motor skills and, 2: 697–698 infant reaching and, 2: 699, 2: 701 in late childhood and adolescence, 2: 701–702 newborn motor capacities and, 2: 698–699 observational learning and, 2: 744 Piaget’s cognitive development stages and, 2: 799–800 postural reflexes and, 2: 699 prenatal motor development and, 2: 698 primitive reflexes and, 2: 698 reflexive responses and, 2: 698 right vs. left handedness and, 2: 698 sensorimotor intelligence and, 2: 799–800 vocal vs. sign language development and, 2: 701 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 2: 805 Mullan Harris, Kathleen, 2: 807 Multicultural classrooms, 2:702–708 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 B rown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas and, 1: 17, 1: 18, 2: 705 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217 cultural learning styles and, 2: 703–705 definitions regarding, 2: 702–703 ESL and, 1: 343–348 ethnic, economic focus and, 2: 702 ethnic demographics and, 2: 703 ethnicity, school achievement and, 2: 703–704 Guadalupe v. Tempe and, 2: 705 implications of, 2: 707 Lau v. Nichols and, 2: 705 multiculturalism concept and, 2: 702 90/90/90 criteria and, 2: 707 parent-related issues and, 2: 704 parents and, 2: 702, 2: 705–706 poverty and, 2: 703 school-related issues and, 2: 704 socioeconomic differences and, 2: 703–704 student experiences in, 2: 703–704 successful classrooms and, 2: 704–705, 2: 706–707 teacher-parent interactions and, 2: 705–706 teachers in culturally competent classrooms and, 2: 706 See also Cultural diversity; Culture; Diversity; specific cultural group Multicultural education, 2:708–709 American Indians, Alaska Natives and, 1: 31–37 Asian Americans and, 1: 55–60 bilingual education and, 1: 97–103 civil rights movement and, 2: 708 cultural deficit model and, 1: 216–217 goals, ideals, objectives of, 2: 708, 2: 710 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 702–707 origins and foundation of, 2: 709–710 social responsibilities focus of, 2: 708 women’s rights movement and, 2: 708 See also Culture Multiple-choice tests, 2:709–712 essay tests vs. , 1: 355 explicit memory and, 1: 384 formal, informal uses of, 2: 710 guidelines for creation of, 2: 710–711 popularity of, 2: 709 scaling measurement of, 2: 643 strengths of, 2: 709–710 test developer goals and, 2: 710 Multiple intelligences, 2:712–717 bodily/kinesthetic intelligence and, 2: 713–714 brain-relevant education and, 1: 118 cognitive style, cultural diversity and, 1: 221 criteria of, 2: 712 crystallized intelligence and, 1: 213 domains of activity and, 2: 689 field independence-field dependence cognitive style and, 1: 402–403 Howard Gardner’s work in, 1: 12, 1: 118, 1: 221, 1: 335, 1: 439 general intelligence vs. , 2: 712 gifted and talented students and, 1: 438–443 interpersonal intelligence and, 2: 714 intrapersonal intelligence and, 2: 714–715 linguistic intelligence and, 2: 712–713 mathematical/logical intelligence and, 2: 712, 2: 713 musical intelligence and, 2: 715–716 naturalistic intelligence and, 2: 715 spatial intelligence and, 2: 716 spiritual, existential moral intelligences and, 2: 716 I-46 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-46 triarchic theory of intelligence and, 1: 12, 1: 439, 1: 441, 2: 538, 2: 544, 2: 689 See also Adult learning Multon, Karen, 2: 672 Mumford, Alan, 2: 601 Murdock, Tamera, 1: 139–140 Murphy, John, 2: 869 Murray, Charles, 1: 96–97, 1: 363 Murray, Henry, 2: 723, 2: 786 Myelination, 2:717–718 Alzheimer’s disease and, 2: 717 autoimmune disease and, 2: 717 axon protection function of, 2: 717 brain white matter and, 2: 717 developmental process of, 2: 717 genetic, environmental influences on, 2: 717 information processing speed and, 2: 717 insulation function of, 2: 717 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality test, 2: 781 Mytton, Julie, 2: 885 NAAL. See National Assessments of Adult Literacy (NAAL) NAEP. See National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) NAEYC. See National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Nagel, Joane, 1: 364 Nansel, Tonja, 1: 123 NASBE. See National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE) Nathanson, Jerome, 1: 235 (quote) National Alliance to End Homelessness, 1: 492 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 1: 19, 2:719–720 charter schools and, 1: 133 components of, 2: 719 cultural diversity and, 1: 222 district-level assessments of, 2: 720 high-stakes testing scores of, 1: 468 homework and, 1: 495 long-term trend assessments of, 2: 720 National Center for Education Statistics and, 2: 720–722 participation rates and, 2: 737 reading skills, literacy and, 2: 610 state level assessments and, 2: 720 student achievement focus of, 2: 719–720 student classifications by, 2: 851 Technology-Based Assessment of, 2: 720 “The Nation’s Report Card™” and, 2: 719, 2: 721 Web sites regarding, 2: 720 See also Ethics and research National Assessments of Adult Literacy (NAAL), 2: 721 National Association for Family Child Care, 1: 298 National Association for Retarded Children, 1: 244 National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), 1: 297, 1: 298, 2: 609 Web site of, 1: 301 National Association of Education Progress, 1: 222, 2: 911 National Association of School Psychologists, 2: 765 National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE), 2: 509, 2: 511 National Board of Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), 1: 129, 1: 380 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 1: 10, 2:720–722 American educational system focus of, 2: 720–721 annual reports of, 2: 721–722 discipline and, 1: 249 early childhood data and, 2: 721 educational assessments and, 2: 721 elementary, secondary data and, 2: 721 grade retention and, 1: 447 Indicators of School Crimes and Safety and, 2: 722, 2: 884 international data and, 2: 721 multicultural classrooms and, 2: 703, 2: 704 National Assessment of Educational Progress mandated by, 2: 719 postsecondary data and, 2: 721 school violence figures and, 2: 884 Web site of, 2: 722 National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1: 360, 2: 531 National Commission on Excellence in Education, 2: 759 National Council for Accreditation for Teacher Education (NCATE), 1: 129 National Council of Teachers of English, 2: 609, 2: 651 National Council on Disability, 2: 1010 National Council on Measurement in Education, 1: 469, 2: 646, 2: 995 National Crime Victimization Survey, 2: 881, 2:881 (figure) National Defense Education Act (NDEA), 2: 867 National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS), 1: 303–304 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, 1: 474 National Institute for Literacy, 2: 840 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), 1: 299–300, 2: 609, 2: 615, 2: 652 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), 1: 96 National Origins Quota Act of 1924, 1: 54 National Parent Teacher Association, 2: 765 National Reading Panel, 2: 513, 2: 609, 2: 615, 2: 840, 2: 841, 2: 842 National Reporting System (NRS), 1: 463 National Research Act, 2: 531 National Research Council, 2: 609, 2: 615, 2: 732 National Research Council Committee on Appropriate Test Use, 1: 469 National Study of Student Engagement, 1: 453 National Survey of America’s Families, 1: 387–388 National Survey of Student Engagement, 2: 580 National Vocational Guidance Association, 2: 866 Naturalistic observation, 2:722–724 behavior therapy and, 2: 723 coding systems used in, 2: 722–723 ethnography and, 1: 366–367 field experiments vs. , 1: 401–402 Arnold Gesell’s work in, 2: 722 institutional review boards and, 2: 530–533 multiple measures of behavior and, 2: 723–724 Naturalistic Inquiry (Lincoln and Guba), 2: 830 observational research and, 1: 373 observer reliability and, 2: 723 qualitative research methods and, 2: 827–832 NCES. See National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) NCLB. See No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Index ———I-47 Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-47 NDEA. See National Defense Education Act (NDEA) Neal, Patricia, 1:295 (quote) Negative affectivity, 1: 39 NEILS. See National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS) Neuharth-Pritchett, Stacey, 1: 448 Neuroscience, 2:724–729 acetylcholine and, 2: 726 amino acids and, 2: 726 animal models and, 2: 725, 2: 727–728 articulation disorders and, 2: 928–929 behavioral neuroscience and, 2: 728–729 brain, behavior, cognitive relationships and, 2: 728 brain development, perception and, 2: 779–780 brain dysfunction, diseases studied and, 2: 725, 2: 729 brain region functions and, 2: 726–727, 2: 729 brain-relevant education and, 1: 111–118 catecholamines and, 2: 726 cell bodies and, 2: 725, 2: 793–794 central nervous system and, 2: 726–7272 considerations in, 2: 729 cross-disciplinary approaches of, 2: 724–725 developmental disorders and, 2: 729 dopamine and, 2: 726 education and, 2: 728–729 electroencephalography and, 2: 727 event-related potentials and, 2: 727 functional magnetic resonance imagine and, 2: 727 GABA and, 2: 726 genetic studies and, 2: 728 glutamate and, 2: 726 microarray analyses and, 2: 728 microdialysis technique and, 2: 728 motor development and, 2: 696–702, 2: 795 myelination and, 2: 717 nervous system function studied by, 2: 724 neurological development and, 2: 793–794 neurotransmitters and, 2: 725–726, 2: 779 norepinephrine and, 2: 726 peripheral nervous system and, 2: 726 receptors and, 2: 726 self-regulation, school readiness and, 2: 877 sensory development and, 2: 795 serotonin and, 2: 726 synaptogenesis and, 2: 779 techniques used in, 2: 727–278 terminology used in, 2: 725–727 test anxiety and, 2: 969 theory of visual processing and, 2: 779–780 Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP), 1: 301 Newcomb, Andrew, 1: 410 New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, 2: 662, 2: 665 Newstead, Stephen, 1: 137 NICHD. See National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Nicolson, Roderick, 1: 290 NIDCAP. See Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP) Nigam, Milena, 1: 257 Nirje, Bengt, 2: 667 Nisbet, Robert, 1: 153 Nitko, Anthony, 1: 204 NLSY. See National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 2:730–733 accountability for results principle of, 2: 730–732 achievement gap goals of, 1: 20, 1: 379, 2: 730, 2: 872, 2: 926 Adequate Yearly Progress measures of, 1: 464, 1: 469, 2: 731–732 advanced yearly progress requirements and, 1: 379 bilingual, multilingual education and, 1: 102 charter schools from failed schools and, 1: 134, 2: 732 cognitive, cultural styles mismatched testing and, 1: 157 criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 202, 1: 203, 2: 734 disabled children accountability and, 1: 245, 2: 509 Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and, 1: 379, 2: 586, 2: 730 English proficiency goal of, 2: 730, 2: 731 grade retention and, 1: 447 high, objective, uniform, state standard of evaluation (HOUSSE) and, 1: 380–381 highly qualified teachers requirement of, 1: 379, 1: 380–381, 2: 730, 2: 732–733, 2: 912 high-stakes testing and, 1: 225, 1: 379, 1: 465–470 history of, 2: 730 homeless families and, 1: 491, 1: 493–494 IDEA and, 2: 509, 2: 521 Improving America’s Schools Act and, 2: 730 inclusion and, 2: 509 learning culture and, 1: 225 least restrictive placement and, 2: 926 McKinney-Vento Homeless Education Assistance Improvements Act and, 1: 491 purpose of, 2: 730 reading instruction components and, 2: 609 reductionism of, 1: 115 response to intervention data and, 2: 586 scientifically based instruction and, 2: 732 specific learning disabilities and, 2: 586 standards-based interpretation and, 2: 734, 2: 738 statewide academic achievement standards and, 2: 731 statewide assessments and, 1: 60, 2: 731 student performance data, demographic variables and, 1: 19–20 teacher certification and, 1: 129, 1: 379 teacher preparation programs and, 1: 129 “teaching to the test” and, 1: 157 test anxiety and, 2: 967, 2: 970 validity requirements and, 1: 469–470 Noel, Jeffrey, 1: 394 Norcross, John, 1: 281, 1: 282 Normal curve, 2:733–734 central limit theorem and, 2: 733–734 correlation and, 1: 193–194 formula of, 2: 733 Gaussian distribution and, 2: 734 law of errors and, 2: 734 mean m parameter and, 2: 733 normal distribution and, 2: 732 probability density function and, 2: 733 standard deviation s parameter and, 2: 733 standard normal distribution and, 2: 733 Norm-referenced tests, 2:734–738 content coverage and, 2: 737 criterion-referenced testing and, 1: 201, 2: 734, 2: 735, 2: 737–738 I-48 ———Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology Index-Salkind2 (Vol-2)-45478.qxd 12/21/2007 3:02 PM Page I-48