Society of Experimenting Psychologists

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CHAPTER 26 Professional Organizations Author Index Subject Index 530 International Psychology The ﬁrst Advanced Research Training Seminars (ARTS) was held, in conjunction with the 25th International Congress of Psychology in Brussels. Cosponsored by the Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology, the International Association of Applied Psychology, the International Union of Psychological Sciences, ARTS has been held every two years in conjunction with the International Congress of Psychology and the International Congress of Applied Psychology. The ﬁrst International Behavioral Neuroscience Conference was held in San Antonio, Texas. The ﬁrst International Congress on Behaviorism and the Sciences of Behavior took place in Guadalajara, Mexico. The ﬁrst International Asian Conference in Psychology convened in Singapore. The Asian-Paciﬁc Regional Conference of Psychology took place in Guangzhou, China. This was the ﬁrst of a series of biennial regional meetings cosponsored by the IAAP and IUPsyS. The Regional Congress of Psychology for Professionals in the Americas, cosponsored by the IAAP and IUPsyS, took place in Mexico City. The European Society for Philosophy and Psychology held its ﬁrst meeting at the University of Louvain, Belgium. The Uganda National Psychological Association was founded. The Psychological Society of South Africa held its inaugural Congress in Cape Town. The new Society replaced the Psychological Association of South Africa, established in 1982. The International Association for Psychology and the Performing Arts was founded. The Jordan Psychological Association was founded. 1992 1994 1995 1996 1997 The European Psychologist was published under the auspices of the European Federation of Professional Psychologists Associations. The International Journal of Psychotherapy, associated with the European Association for Psychotherapy, was ﬁrst published in cooperation with Carfax Publishing; it is now independent. TABLE 25.1 (Continued) Congresses Societies Events Publications References 531 The Africa Psychology Conference, cosponsored by the IAAP and IUPsyS, took place in Durban, South Africa. An International Organization of Students was founded at the XXVII International Congress of Psychology in Stockholm. 1998 1999 2000 2001 The International Psychology Division (52) of the American Psychological Association was established with over 800 charter members. Journal of International Women’s Studies, an electronic online journal, was initiated at the Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. It is now located at Bridgeport College, Bridgeport, Mass. The International Journal of Clinical Psychology (IJCP) published its initial issue in January. It is available in print or online. TABLE 25.1 (Continued) Congresses Societies Events Publications REFERENCES Ahmed, R. A. (1992). Psychology in Arab countries. In U. P. Gielen, L. L. Adler, & N. A. Milgram (Eds.), Psychology in international perspective: 50 years of the International Coun- cil of Psychologists (pp. 127–150). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Ahmed, R. A. (1997). An interview with Mustapha I. Soueif. World Psychology, 3 (½), 13–27. Angell, J. R. (1930). Address of welcome. In Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Psychology, New Haven, Connecticut, 1929 (p. 9). Princeton, NJ: Psychological Review. Ardilla, R. (1982a). International psychology. American Psycholo- gist, 37, 323–329. Ardilla, R. (1982b). Psychology in Latin America. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 103–122. Azuma, H. (1984). Psychology in a non-Western country. Interna- tional Journal of Psychology, 19, 45–55. Berlyne, D. E. (1968). American and European psychology. American Psychologist, 22, 447–452. Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. 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American Psychologist, 56, 1019–1030. 532 International Psychology Evans, R. B., & Scott, F. J. D. (1978). The 13th International Congress of Psychology: The American congress that wasn’t. American Psychologist, 33, 711–723. Fleishman, E. A. (1979). The new applied psychology: An interna- tional perspective. International Review of Applied Psychology, 28, 67–74. Fleishman, E. A. (1999). Applied psychology: An international journey. American Psychologist, 54, 1008–1016. Fowler, R. D. (1996). Editorial. American Psychologist, 51, 5–7. Georgas, J. (1994). Psychology in Greece. In A. Schorr & S. Saari (Eds.), Psychology in Europe (pp. 59–75). Bern, Switzerland: Hogrefe and Huber. Gergen, K. J., Gulerce, A., Lock, A., & Misra, G. (1996). Psycho- logical science in cultural context. American Psychologist, 51, 496–503. Gielen, U. P., & Bredenkamp, J. (1997). Editorial. World Psychol- ogy, 3, 247–252. Gilgen, A. R., & Gilgen, C. K. (Eds.). (1987). International hand- book of psychology. 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New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Klineberg, O. (1967). The IUPsyS and international relations. Inter- national Journal of Psychology, 2, 76–78. Koch, S. (1985). Foreword: Wundt’s creature at age zero and cente- narian: Some aspects of the institutionalization of the “new psychology.” In S. Koch & D. E. Leary (Eds.), A century of psy- chology as science (pp. 7–35). New York: McGraw-Hill. Kossakowski, A. (1980). Psychology in the German Democratic Republic. American Psychologist, 35, 450–460. Lomov, B. F. (1982). Soviet psychology: Its historical origins and contemporary status. American Psychologist, 37, 580–586. Lunt, I., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1996). Internationalizing psychology: The case of Europe. American Psychologist, 51, 504–508. Luria, A. R., & Majovski, L. V. (1977). Basic approaches used in American and Soviet clinical neuropsychology. American Psy- chologist, 32, 959–968. MacLeod, R. B. (1957). A note on the international congress. In H. P. David & H. V. 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(Eds.). (1994). The origins and development of psychology: Some national and regional per- spectives [Special issue]. International Journal of Psychology, 29, 665–756. Poortinga, Y. H. (1997). Cultural psychology: A U.S. tragedy. In M. Givadan & T. Venguer (Eds.), Conferencias magistrales congreso regional para profesionales en America (pp. 39–54). Mexico City: IMIFAP. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1979). Promoting international communica- tion in psychology. International Journal of Psychology, 14, 285–286. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1984). U.S. psychology and world psychology. American Psychologist, 39, 877–884. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1988). Psychology and the United Nations human rights efforts. American Psychologist, 43, 79–86. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1992). International psychological science. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rosenzweig, M. R., Holtzman, W. H., Sabourin, M., & Bolanger, D. (2000). The history of the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS). 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Interna- tional Journal of Psychology, 19, 3–192. Soueif, M. I. (1963). An introduction to social psychology [In Arabic]. Cairo, Egypt: Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop. Street, W. R. (1994). A chronology of noteworthy events in American psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychologi- cal Association. Sunar, D. (1996). An interview with Cigdem Kagitchibasi. World Psychology, 2, 139–152. Triandis, H. C. (1980). Preface. In H. C. Triandis & W. W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 1, pp. ix–xv). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Triandis, H. C. (1994). On the utility of applied psychology. Address presented at the 21st International Congress of Applied Psychol- ogy, Madrid, Spain. Van Strien, P. J. (1997). The American “colonization” of northwest European social psychology after World War II. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 33, 349–363. Watson, R. I. (1960). The history of psychology: A neglected area. American Psychologist, 15, 251–255. Wilpert, B. (2000). Applied psychology: Past and future societal and scientiﬁc challenges. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49, 3–22. Woodworth, R. S. (1964). Contemporary schools of psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Roland Press. CHAPTER 26 Professional Organizations WADE E. PICKREN AND RAYMOND D. FOWLER 535 INTERNATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS 535 The International Union of Psychological Sciences 535 The International Association of Applied Psychology 536 The International Council of Psychologists 536 International Associations: Regional 537 Other Regional Meetings 538 International Associations: Specialized 538 NATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS 538 Europe 538 Asia 539 The Near and Middle East 539 South and Central America and the Caribbean 539 Africa 540 Others 540 North America 540 Applied Psychological Organizations 544 Psychological Organizations in the Public Interest 545 Accreditation and Credentialing Organizations 548 Interdisciplinary Organizations 549 CONCLUSION 550 REFERENCES 551 Among the scientiﬁc societies that proliferated across Europe and North America in the latter half of the nineteenth century were psychological societies and organizations (Appel, 1988; Gundlach, 1997). At the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst cen- tury, there are well over 1,000 psychological associations, societies, or organizations. In this chapter, we will provide a descriptive history of the development of organized psychol- ogy, beginning with international organizations, then moving to national, regional, and, ﬁnally, specialty organizations. We will not be exhaustive in our description; rather, we will at- tempt to present a representation of the various types of psy- chological societies. INTERNATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS As the possibility of a new science of psychology grew across Europe in the late nineteenth century, the ﬁrst cohort of psy- chologists loosely organized themselves into local societies or participated in the organizational life of other scientiﬁc so- cieties. Improvements in transportation and communication were instrumental in facilitating more formal associations by making travel to distant sites quicker and safer. Beginning in 1889, psychologists began to meet their colleagues from other cities or universities at international congresses of psychology. The diverse interests that were represented in these meetings reﬂected the heterogeneity of psychology dur- ing the period. For example, organizers with interests as di- verse as hypnosis and psychical research sponsored the ﬁrst two International Congresses of Psychology. Jean Martin Charcot (1825–1893) and his colleagues in the Société de Psychologie Physiologique organized the ﬁrst International Congress of Psychology held at the Paris World Fair of 1889. Charcot was president of this ﬁrst congress, and his research and clinical interests in hypnosis were represented in approx- imately one-third of the congress papers (Silverman, 1989; Smith, 1997). The London Society for Psychical Research or- ganized the second International Congress of Psychology in 1892. Although their themes were perhaps peripheral to the interests of most scientiﬁc psychologists, these ﬁrst two con- gresses provided a venue for psychologists to gather, discuss research, and make plans for future cooperation. The interna- tional congresses helped bring together scholars with a com- mon interest in the new discipline and played a vital role in the establishment of psychological associations. The International Union of Psychological Sciences The international congresses eventually led to an umbrella organization of psychological science. For many years, the International Congress Committee served as the steering 536 Professional Organizations group that provided continuity from one congress to the next. In 1948, an international organization to support and promote psychology worldwide was formally discussed at the ﬁrst post–World War II congress in Edinburgh. The United Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) indicated a willingness to provide ﬁnancial sup- port for international scientiﬁc organizations. So, in 1951 the International Union of Scientiﬁc Psychology (IUSP) was formed at the Stockholm meeting of the International Congress with a name change to the International Union of Psychological Sciences in 1965. The International Union of Psychological Sciences became a member of the Interna- tional Council of Scientiﬁc Unions in 1982, with an attendant change in name to the current International Union of Psycho- logical Sciences (IUPsyS). In 1952, the IUPsyS became a member of the International Social Science Council. The IUPsyS is one of only two scientiﬁc unions that belong to both the International Council of Scientiﬁc Unions and the In- ternational Social Science Council, thus providing a bridge between the natural sciences and the social and behavioral sci- ences (Rosenzweig, Holtzman, Sabourin, & Belanger, 2000). Membership in IUPsyS is by national associations rather than individual psychologists. There were 20 initial member nations, mostly drawn from western Europe, but also includ- ing Canada, the United States, Egypt, Japan, Brazil, Cuba, and Uruguay. As national associations formed over the sec- ond half of the twentieth century, membership grew to in- clude associations from every continent. At the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century, the IUPsyS represented 66 na- tional members, which, in turn, represented most of the 500,000 or so psychologists around the world. There are 11 organizations afﬁliated with IUPsyS. In addition to sponsor- ing the International Congress of Psychology every 4 years, IUPsyS publishes The International Journal of Psychology and facilitates communication among its national members (Rosenzweig et al., 2000). The International Association of Applied Psychology The International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP) is the oldest international association of individual psycholo- gists. The archives of the IAAP were destroyed during World War II, so the full history of the early years of the association cannot be told. What is known is that in 1920, Edouard Claparède (1873–1940) and Pierre Bovet (1878–1965), of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, Switzerland, organized the ﬁrst International Conference of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance. Despite its impressive title, there were fewer than 50 conference participants. The conference was hastily arranged to coincide with the annual training course in vocational guidance offered by the Swiss Association for Vocational Guidance and Apprentice Welfare (Gundlach, 1998). Vocational guidance was a new area for psychologists and educators in Europe and the United States. The concept was pioneered in the United States by attorney Frank Parsons (1854–1908) and experimental psychologist Hugo Münster- berg (1863–1916). In Europe, it formed a part of the bur- geoning ﬁeld of psychotechnics, in which the apparatus of experimental psychology laboratories were used to test voca- tional aptitude and to assist in the selection of personnel (van Drunen, 1997). Although the number of participants was small, the papers were well received and it was decided to have a second, larger, congress the next year in Barcelona. Following this ﬁrst conference, the International Association of Psychotech- nics was founded with Claparède as its ﬁrst president, a post he held until his death in 1941. However, the actual legal incorporation was not until 1927, when the group merged with the International Association for Psychology and Psy- chotechnics (Gundlach, 1998). The name was changed to the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP) in 1955 (Wilpert, 2000). The association sponsored international meetings on an ir- regular basis until 1976, when an agreement was reached with the IUPsyS to hold congresses every fourth year on an alternating basis. The International Congresses of Applied Psychology are currently held every 4 years, 2 years after the preceding International Congress of Psychology, so there is a major international congress every 2 years. At the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century, the IAAP had more than 2,000 members in over 90 countries. In 1978, the association began to organize its members into divisions that represent various ﬁelds of psychology; at the end of the twen- tieth century there were 14 such divisions. It was also in the late 1970s that the association began forming committees and task forces to implement its members’ initiatives. The mission of the IAAP is to advance scientiﬁc work in ap- plied psychology around the world. Its publications in the service of this mission include Applied Psychology: An Inter- national Review and the International Journal of Applied Psychology . The International Council of Psychologists The National Council of Women Psychologists (NCWP) began in December 1941 as an organization to promote the interests of women psychologists in the United States. The name was changed to the International Council of Women Psychologists after World War II and to the current Interna- tional Council of Psychologists in 1959. International Psychological Organizations 537 As American psychologists began to prepare for national service in the event of U.S. involvement in the war, women psychologists felt excluded. One stated that she and her women colleagues grew frustrated with male psychologists who either wanted to go on “reading papers on rat reactions and retroactive inhibitions as though psychology had no concern with a world already launched into inferno” or who sought to exclude women from war work (Schwesinger, 1943, p. 298). Women psychologists were repeatedly coun- seled by male psychologists in leadership positions in orga- nized psychology to wait patiently. Finally, when it became clear that nothing was going to be done for them, a group of 50 women voted to organize as the National Council of Women Psychologists (Capshew & Laszlo, 1986). By June 1942, membership had grown to 240 women PhD psycholo- gists (Schwesinger, 1943). The NCWP was successful in gaining its members useful civilian roles in wartime service. NWCP members provided a variety of educational, assess- ment, and placement services. However, the NWCP was un- able to signiﬁcantly increase the number of women faculty members, even though there was a chronic shortage of quali- ﬁed male professors of psychology. Membership in the NCWP declined after the war. Rather than disband, its leaders decided to add an international focus and took a new name, the International Council of Women Psychologists (Carrington, 1952). The ICWP developed an extensive educational and support role for psychologists around the world. Included among these activities were sup- port for displaced psychologists and the publication of a book, Women Psychologists: Their Work and Training and Professional Opportunities (1950), meant to encourage young women to become psychologists. However, the promotion of women in psychology remained the ﬁrst goal of the ICWP. The 1950s was an era that was not sympathetic to women’s issues. Leading male psychologists were frequently unsympathetic, if not hostile, to women as professional colleagues (e.g., Boring, 1951). One departmental chairman stated that if “women were really capable, nothing could hold them back and that any effort to support women psychologists just because they were women was a mistake” (cited in Walsh, 1985, p. 21). Leaders of the ICWP sought divisional membership in the American Psychological Association (APA) as a means to gain a voice for women’s issues in psychology but were repeatedly turned down by the APA leadership. In 1959, after considerable discussion, the ICWP changed its constitution to allow men to become members and its name to the International Council of Psychologists. Still, the APA would not admit the organization to divisional status (Walsh, 1985). After 1959, the mission of the ICP was broadened so that the advancement of women and men in psychology was fo- cused on psychological science and practice in the interna- tional arena. The ICP now has women and men members in over 90 countries and sponsors annual meetings at various sites around the world. The ICP is registered as a Non- Governmental Organization with consultative status at the United Nations and has representation on many UN initia- tives. Members of the ICP are organized in committees and interest groups that reﬂect a broad array of psychologi- cal concerns and activities (Davis, 2000; Gielen, Adler, & Milgram, 1992). The ICP and the APA cohost a reception for international visitors at each annual APA convention. The two organiza- tions also jointly sponsor a program to donate books and journals to libraries in third-world countries. International Associations: Regional The European Federation of Professional Psychology Asso- ciations and the Interamerican Society of Psychology are the two major regional psychological associations that hold reg- ular conventions in years when neither the IUPsyS nor the IAAP are holding their congresses. In addition, the IAAP and the IUPsyS jointly sponsor regional conferences on a peri- odic basis, usually in developing areas of the world. The Interamerican Society of Psychology The Interamerican Society of Psychology (usually known by its Spanish-language acronym, SIP) was founded in De- cember 1951 during the Congress of the World Federation of Mental Health. The founding members intended for the so- ciety to be a small group of prominent psychologists who would work together to foster psychological science in the Americas and the Caribbean. There were only 50 members in 1953, most from the United States, Mexico, and a few Caribbean islands. However, membership grew to more than 900 by 1964, and the society was restructured to accommo- date growth. The number of countries represented grew to include many more Latin American countries. In 2000, the society’s membership included approximately 1,000 individ- uals from 26 countries. To fulﬁll its mission to promote psychology in the Western Hemisphere, the society has held the Interamerican Congress of Psychology since 1953. For the ﬁrst 7 years, the congress was held annually, with a move to biennial meetings held in odd-numbered years after 1959. All the major areas of psy- chology have been historically represented in the society and at the congresses. Focuses in the last years of the twentieth 538 Professional Organizations century included community/social psychology, psychology applied to education, and AIDS prevention (Ferdman, 2000). As of the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century, the SIP re- mained the preeminent regional psychological organization for the Western Hemisphere. Through its journal, its Internet- based listserv, and its congress, the SIP was able to effec- tively promote the development of psychology in its member nations. The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations Like the IUPsyS, the European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations (EFPPA) restricts its membership to national psychological associations, with only one associ- ation per country permitted to hold membership. The EFPPA was founded in 1981 and reﬂects the changes in Europe as its countries move toward political and economic unity. Twelve national psychology associations held charter membership in the EFPPA. In 2000, that number had grown to 30 member nations, whose associations represented over 100,000 individual psychologists. Professional issues such as training, curricula, ethics, and professional regulation have historically been the principal focus of the EFPPA, but the as- sociation considers the integration of practice and research to be an indispensable goal for European psychology. A central focus of the EFPPA has been the development of Europe-wide training standards for psychologists. This focus reﬂected the political directives of the European Community that encouraged professions in member states to develop common standards. In psychology, this move eventuated in the adoption in 1990 of formal guidelines under the rubric “Optimal Standards for Training.” The goal of the EFPPA at the end of the twentieth century was to develop a formal framework that would lead to a European Diploma for Psy- chologists (Lunt, 1996, 2000). The EFPPA has held biennial assemblies since 1982. In 1996, the association began sponsoring publication of the European Psychologist, which was a primary means of com- munication among its members. Other Regional Meetings Since 1995, regional congresses of psychology have been held, primarily in developing areas of the world, under the cosponsorship of the IUPsyS and the IAAP. These con- gresses usually do not involve permanent regional organi- zations; rather, the host country organizes them, and most participants come from the surrounding region, although psy- chologists from other regions are welcome to register and attend. These regional meetings are especially important for younger psychologists and colleagues from less developed countries who may not be able to afford the travel costs and registration fees for world congresses. Regional congresses have been held in Guangzhou, China (1995), Mexico City, Mexico (1997), Durban, South Africa (1999) and Mumbai, India (2001). International Associations: Specialized There are many international organizations that represent psy- chologists who are interested in speciﬁc areas of research or practice. Fourteen international organizations are afﬁliated with the IUPsyS. In addition, there are at least 65 others, and probably more. Also, at least 30 specialized organizations focus primarily on members in a particular region, such as Europe,Asia–South Paciﬁc, and the Nordic countries. Almost all of these organizations were established in the last half of the twentieth century. Among the more prominent specialized international or- ganizations are the International Neuropsychological Society (est. 1967), the International Society for the Study of Behav- ioural Development (est. 1969), the Jean Piaget Society (est. 1970), the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psy- chology (est. 1972), and the International Test Commission (est. 1974). Examples of specialized regional associations in- clude the European Association of Psychological Assessment (est. 1990), the European Health Psychology Society (est. 1986), and the International Society of Political Psychology (est. 1978). NATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS The ﬁrst national psychological organization was the American Psychological Association (1892). Its history will be given in greater detail below. By 1925, eight national asso- ciations had been established; by 2000, 66 national associa- tions had been recognized by the IUPsyS, and there were national associations in at least 15 other countries. The development of national organizations outside the United States occurred ﬁrst in Europe, followed by South America and Asia; African nations have only recently begun to organize such associations. Europe In the ﬁrst decade of the twentieth century, psychologists in four European nations formed national associations: Great Britain and France (1901), Germany (1904), and Italy (1910). The Psychological Society, changed to the British Psychological Society in 1906, was formed in October 1901 National Psychological Associations 539 by 10 psychologists who met at University College, London (Bunn, 2000). The French Psychological Society (SFP) was also founded in 1901. Its initial mission was to promote sci- entiﬁc research, but over the course of the twentieth century it has developed a greater emphasis on the practice of psychol- ogy. In Germany, psychologists G. E. Mueller, Oswald Kulpe, and Herman Ebbinghaus formed the Society of Experimental Psychology (SEP) in 1904; the name was later changed to German Society for Psychology (DGPs). As in other psycho- logical organizations formed in this period, the emphasis in the SEP was on scientiﬁc research. Much was lost during the Nazi period, with the result that organized psychology had to be completely rebuilt after World War II. Two German states were created in 1949: the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). The DGPs continued as the primary national asso- ciation of academic psychologists in the latter and had approximately 1,800 members at the end of the twentieth cen- tury. In 1946, the Professional Association of German Psy- chologists was founded; its focus was (and is) the application of psychology outside the universities. Its membership at the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century was approximately 21,000. In the German Democratic Republic, a new profes- sional society was formed in 1962. The Society for Psychol- ogy (GfP) was mainly concerned with scientiﬁc psychology in adherence to Marxist-Leninist principles; it had approxi- mately 2,500 members at the time of German reuniﬁcation in 1990. The GfP dissolved at that time and its members were able to choose to afﬁliate with either the DGPs or the Profes- sional Association of German Psychologists (Dumont & Louw, 2001; Trommsdorf & Sprung; 2000). The Italian Psy- chological Society (SIPs) was formed in 1910 as a scientiﬁc society. During the twentieth century, other smaller societies, many devoted to professional practice or specialized research areas, joined the SIPs. It had eight specialty divisions and 20 regional sections at the end of the twentieth century. Growth in other parts of Europe came more slowly, and only in Hungary (1928) and the Netherlands (1938) had national organizations formed before World War II began. The Swiss Psychological Society was formed during the war (1943). After the war, growth was more rapid. Denmark (1947), Poland (1948), Finland (1952), Spain (1952), Austria (1953), Iceland (1954), and Sweden (1955) formed national psychological societies in the ﬁrst decade after the end of the war. Growth in the Soviet Union was slowed by governmental opposition to behavioral science from 1936 until 1955. Among the various republics of the Soviet Union, Georgia was the ﬁrst to allow psychologists to organize (1941), while Russia did not allow an association until 1957. Since1955,nationalpsychologicalorganizationshavebeen formed in almost every nation of Europe, including Turkey (1956), Czechoslovakia (1958), Greece (1963), Portugal (1965), Romania (1965), Ireland (1970), Estonia (1988), and Albania (1991). Asia China was the ﬁrst Asian country where psychologists formed a national society (Chinese Psychological Society, 1921), but because of the nation’s internal political conﬂicts, the organization disbanded after a few years. The society was brieﬂy reorganized in 1937 but was dissolved again when Japan invaded China. The Chinese Psychological Society re- sumed operation in 1950, only to close in 1966 for 10 years during the Cultural Revolution. In 1977, the organization was able to resume its activities. At the end of the twentieth cen- tury, the society had approximately 3,000 members. The Indian Psychological Association was formed in 1925. Psychology in Japan began with the visit of former APA president G. T. Ladd in the late 1800s. One of his Japanese students, M. Mastumoto, helped train the ﬁrst gen- eration of Japanese psychologists. It was not until 1927, how- ever, that the Japanese Psychological Association was founded. Its membership remained small until after World War II; by the year 2000 its membership was approximately 5,000. Other more specialized psychological societies are afﬁliated with the JPA, including the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology (est. 1952) and the Association of Japanese Clinical Psychology (est. 1982). It was not until 1952 that psychologists in another Asian nation, Indonesia, formed a national society. Since then, national associations have formed in the Philippines, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, Korea, Singapore, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Pakistan. The Near and Middle East The ﬁrst psychological organization in the Arab world was established in Egypt in 1948. The Israeli Psychological Asso- ciation was formed a decade later (1958), with Tunisian psychologists following in 1962. In the last decade of the twentieth century, psychologists in Yemen (1990) and Jordan (1996) formed national societies. Other countries in the re- gion with national associations are Iran and Morocco. South and Central America and the Caribbean Experimental psychology began in Latin America in 1898 with the establishment of a laboratory in Argentina. It was also 540 Professional Organizations in Argentina (1930) that the ﬁrst national society of psycholo- gists in SouthAmerica was formed. Ecuador (1942) followed, and by 1981 national organizations had formed in a number of South and Central American countries, including Brazil (1949),Mexico(1953),Uruguay(1953),Peru(1954),Venezuela (1957), Cuba (1964), and Panama (1965), Colombia (1978), and Nicaragua (1981). Chile and the Dominican Republic also have national psychological organizations. Africa The South African Psychological Association (SAPA) was formed in 1948. From its beginning, it incorporated both academic and professional psychologists. Conﬂict over apartheid led to a separate Whites only organization in 1961, the Psychological Institute of the Republic of South Africa (PIRSA). A new association of psychologists without racial restrictions was formed when the two groups merged to form the Psychological Association of South Africa (PASA) in 1983 (Dumont & Louw, 2001). At the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century, membership in PASA was approxi- mately 5,000; 90% of PASA’s members were white. Other national associations of psychologists formed in Africa were in Zimbabwe (1971), Namibia (1990), and Uganda (1992). Others The Canadian Psychological Association was formed in 1938 and held its ﬁrst annual meeting in 1940 (Dzinas, 2000). Psychologists in Australia (1966) and New Zealand (1967) formed independent national organizations after initial mem- berships as branches of the British Psychological Society. North America The development and organization of psychology in the United States is best viewed against the backdrop of changes in American life and society. Along with a number of other disciplines (e.g., economics, political science, biochemistry, physiology) in the last two decades of the nineteenth century, the new psychology grew and prospered as it responded to the needs of American society (Appel, 1988; Kohler, 1982; Sokal, 1992). The Progressive movement in politics was one overt response to the calls for a more efﬁcient, less corrupt, social order, while in academia there was a parallel response as American universities sought to provide trained personnel to ﬁll the new professional niches created by the demands for a more efﬁcient society. The modern university that emerged after the U.S. Civil War was both a product and a producer of the increasingly rationalized society (Veysey, 1965). As Wiebe (1967) points out, this was the era of the rise of the expert who restricted himself to a specialized function in order to increase his au- thority. The new graduate schools, modeled on the German research university, provided professional training for this new class of experts (Veysey, 1965). Psychology and other disciplines emerged as examples of the increasing specializa- tion of knowledge within the university. The most successful of these new disciplines were the ones that found a way to use their specialized knowledge in the practical service of the larger community. Psychology was among those successful disciplines. In July 1892, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) met with a small group of men to discuss the possibility of organizing a psychological association (Fernberger, 1932). Although the details of the meeting are not known, the group elected 31 in- dividuals, including themselves, to membership, with Hall as the ﬁrst president. The ﬁrst meeting of the new American Psychological Association (APA) was held in December 1892 at the University of Pennsylvania. The basic gover- nance of the APA consisted of a council with an executive committee, a plan that is essentially the same as that of the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century: a Council of Represen- tatives with a Board of Directors. Membership growth of the APA was modest over the ﬁrst 50 years of its existence. From 31 members in 1892, there were 125 members in 1899, 308 in 1916, 530 in 1930, and 664 in 1940. In 1926, a new class of nonvoting membership was formed, associate, and most of the growth occurred in that class after 1926, so that there were 2,079 associate members in 1940. During World War II, the APA merged with other psy- chological organizations under a reorganization plan that broadened the scope of psychology to include professional practice and the promotion of human welfare.The reorganized APA was prepared for the postwar boom in psychology. The greatest growth in APA membership came after World War II. Returning servicemen, with federal education beneﬁts (e.g., the GI bill), ﬁlled the psychology graduate pro- grams of American universities. Many of them were inter- ested in the new clinical psychology training programs. Training mental health personnel became a priority for the Veterans Administration and the new National Institute of Mental Health. Millions of dollars were poured into psychol- ogy in the postwar period; these monies led to signiﬁcant in- creases in faculty as well as students. In the 25-year period from 1945 to 1970, the APA experienced the most rapid growth of its entire history. Membership grew over 630%, from 4,183 to 30,839 members (Crawford, 1992). From 1970 to 2000, APA membership grew to 88,500, with another 70,500 afﬁliates. National Psychological Associations 541 The divisional structure of the APA that grew out of the re- organization plan during World War II facilitated the growth of psychology and represented the increasing diversity of American psychology (Benjamin, 1997b; Dewsbury, 1997). Nineteen divisions were approved in 1944; ﬁve of them were sections from the American Association of Applied Psychol- ogy (AAAP), which had emerged in 1937 as the chief rival to the APA. The two most popular divisions reﬂected the prac- tice and application emphasis of the AAAP: clinical and per- sonnel (Benjamin, 1997b). However, the number of divisions was almost immediately reduced to 17 when the Psychomet- ric Society (Division 4) decided not to join and Division 11, Abnormal Psychology and Psychotherapy, merged with Division 12, Clinical Psychology. By 1960, there were 20 di- visions. From 1960 to 2001, 32 more divisions were formed to bring the total to 52. Most of the growth of divisions oc- curred in areas of psychological practice and reﬂected partic- ular practice focuses, for example, Division 50, Addictions. Until the 1990s, divisions oriented to psychological science also experienced membership increases. However, by the end of the twentieth century, membership in some science divi- sions was decreasing. The events that led to the founding of the Canadian Psy- chological Association (CPA) began in the Spring of 1938 with the distribution of a questionnaire to Canadian psychol- ogists seeking to determine their interest in a national organi- zation. During a meeting held in June 1938 a motion was approved to form a Canadian association. A group was formed in 1939 to draft a constitution for the new society. The constitution was ratiﬁed in December 1940 and the CPA was incorporated in 1950 (Dzinas, 2000). Like its neighbor the APA, the CPA was organized over the twentieth century into divisions, with a total of 23 sections in 2000. The CPA at the end of the century pub- lished three journals and a newsletter. The Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues Several of the APA divisions began as independent organiza- tions and later joined the APA. While all of those organiza- tions have an interesting history, we focus here on two: the Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), which is APA’s Division 9, and the Psychology-Law Society, APA’s Division 41. A group of young psychologists led by Ross Stagner and Isadore Krechevsky (who later changed his name to David Krech) circulated a petition in 1935 that called on the APA to become involved in the pressing social issues of the day. Speciﬁcally, this group wanted the APA to address the problems of unemployment among (especially young) psychologists, to work for the inclusion of mental health ser- vices in federal programs, and to speak out against fascism. The leadership of the APA at the time was chieﬂy focused on maintaining a public image of psychology as a natural sci- ence and declined to act on the issues presented them. A year later, at the APA meeting at Dartmouth College, Krech and Stagner held a public meeting at which the SPSSI was formed. The prominent psychologist Goodwin Watson was named as the ﬁrst president. The SPSSI sought afﬁliate sta- tus with the APA, which was granted the following year (Finison, 1986; Stagner, 1986). When the APA was reorganized during World War II, the SPSSI joined as Division 9. However, the SPSSI has remained an independently incorporated organization. While all Divi- sion 9 members must also be SPSSI members, not all SPSSI members are Division 9 members. The number of psycholo- gists who are members of SPSSI has ﬂuctuated over the years, from a high of 80% in 1980 to its current low of approximately 55% (Kimmel, 1997). The SPSSI experienced fairly consis- tent growth in its membership over the years, with a high of 2,832 in 1985. However, the SPSSI experienced a decline in members in the second half of the 1990s. The focus of the division since its inception has been on social issues. One prominent member described the interests of SPSSI members as the “three Ps: prejudice, poverty, and peace” (cited in Kimmel, 1997, p. 17). Labor issues served as an initial focus in the late 1930s as the United States faced se- vere economic hardship. The SPSSI worked to gain greater employment for psychologists and to understand and reduce labor conﬂict. SPSSI members, led by Otto Klineberg and Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark, played a crucial role in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The research of Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark was critical in the Supreme Court decision to end race- based school segregation (Jackson, 2000; Phillips, 2000). The SPSSI has worked in support of cases of academic freedom, early and notably in the case of the University of California, Berkeley, professors who were ﬁred for refusing to sign a loyalty oath during the McCarthy “Red Hunt” era. The SPSSI has also worked on social issues such as civil rights, population control, antiwar activities, and the role of science in the formation of public policy. American Psychology-Law Society Two young psychologists attended the 1968 APA Convention focused on ﬁnding other psychologists who were interested in forming an association devoted to the issues at the inter- face of psychology and law. Eric Dreikurs and Jay Ziskin were not acquainted prior to the meeting but quickly found 542 Professional Organizations each other and were able to gather 13 other psychologists also interested in psychology and law. In 1969, the American Psychology-Law Society (AP-LS) was incorporated with 101 charter members. From this small group, the AP-LS grew to a membership of 2000 by the century’s end. In 1984, the AP-LS merged with the three-year-old APA Division 41, Psychology and Law (Fulero, 1999; Grisso, 1991). Tensions between science and application were present from the beginning of the society. A signiﬁcant portion of the membership wanted to focus on developing the forensic ap- plication of psychology and saw the society as a means of re- ﬁning the role of psychologists in the legal system. An equally signiﬁcant percentage of the membership sought a sounder basis for psychological contributions to law through research. An early crisis between the groups was sparked by the publication of Ziskin’s Coping with Psychiatric and Psy- chological Testimony (1970). Ziskin challenged the reliabil- ity and admissibility of most psychological and psychiatric testimony and declared that serious research was needed to bring psychological testimony up to acceptable standards. The debate and conﬂict that ensued from the book’s publica- tion led to Ziskin’s resignation from AP-LS in 1973. Para- doxically, the effect of the book was to steer the society toward greater support of research in the social and experi- mental foundations of psychology and law. By the late 1970s, a younger cohort of psychologists in- terested in law moved into AP-LS leadership. Many of these young psychologists were interested in the applicability of their ﬁeld to social issues, especially the improvement of legal institutions (Grisso, 1991). The vigorous leadership of Bruce Sales (1976–1977) energized the society. Sales had a vision of the AP-LS as the major public organization at work at the interface of psychology and law. Under his leadership, new publishing ventures were begun, including the founding of the society journal, Law and Human Behavior. The emphasis on research and social action left many of the forensic expert witnesses without a clear sense of their place in AP-LS. In the last half of the 1970s, AP-LS clinical forensic members went outside the society to start an inde- pendent board that was charged with establishing credentials for diplomate status in forensic psychology (Kaslow, 1989). The AP-LS assisted with the establishment of the American Board of Forensic Psychology but was not responsible for it. Thus, by 1980, the AP-LS represented the major areas of psy- chology and law. By 1977, some psychologists were active in calling for an APA division of psychology and law. In 1977–1978, the AP-LS became actively involved and worked to gather the necessary signatures to petition the APA Council of Rep- resentatives for a new division. The council approved the division in 1980, and Division 41, Psychology and Law, was established in 1981. The leaders of AP-LS initially resisted a merger between the society and the division, but by 1983 it was clear that a merger was the most effective way for the two groups to work together. In 1984, the two groups merged and provision was made for AP-LS members who were not psychologists. Most of the nonpsychologists were lawyers, and they represented a sizable percentage of the AP-LS membership. The combined AP-LS/Division 41 worked on many sig- niﬁcant issues after their merger. Among the more salient were ethics guidelines for forensic psychologists, syllabi for courses in psychology and law, and the pursuit of specialty status from APA for forensic psychology. As in all areas of American psychology where both clinicians and scientists are active, opportunities for conﬂict have been present. At the end of the twentieth century,AL-PS/ Division 41 had successfully managed the mineﬁeld at the borderland between science and practice. Scientiﬁc Organizations Although the APA was organized to promote psychology as a science, from its inception there have been those who be- lieved that it was not scientiﬁc enough. This has given rise over the ensuing decades to numerous societies, both formal and informal, that sought to create organizations devoted solely to science. Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) tried in 1898 to organize a small group of experimental psychologists to meet independently of the APA (Goodwin, 1985). E. B. Titch- ener (1867–1927) successfully formed an alternative group in 1904. Although not legally formalized in his lifetime, “The Experimentalists,” as they came to be called, did meet Titch- ener’s desire to have a psychological club whose members could discuss their version of psychological science in a mas- culine, smoky, atmosphere (Boring, 1967; Goodwin, 1985). After Titchener’s death in 1927, the club members reorga- nized into the Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP). Women were admitted for the ﬁrst time, and the membership limit was set at 50. The SEP was incorporated in 1936. Over the years, membership requirements have been slightly mod- iﬁed; most notably the limit has been raised, so that there were 197 fellows in 2000 (Hurvich, 2000). The SEP continued to be primarily concerned with its maintenance as an organiza- tion devoted to science, although its members contributed to the application of psychology during both world wars. For some younger psychologists in the mid-1930s, neither the APA nor the SEP was experimental enough. This younger group loosely organized themselves in 1936 under the name “Society of Experimenting Psychologists” (Benjamin, 1977; National Psychological Associations 543 Hardcastle, 2000). The name was a jab at the SEP, many of whom were no longer actively engaged in experimental re- search. The name was later changed to the Psychological Round Table (PRT) in order to avert professional retaliation from the senior members of the SEP. Like “The Experimen- talists” before them, the members of PRT found the APA meetings too bureaucratic and too inclusive of nonexperi- mental psychology. They were also excluded from member- ship in the SEP. The PRT organizers created a small group based at universities in the eastern United States who met an- nually to talk about research and socialize. Women were ini- tially excluded. Once a member reached the age of 40, he could no longer participate in the meetings. As a result, mem- bership was never large and the group was never formally in- corporated. Nevertheless, the PRT served as an important communication network in American experimental psychol- ogy for many years. Dissatisfaction with the annual meetings of the APA provided the impetus for the formation of the Psychonomic Society in December 1959. In that sense, the Psychonomic Society is heir to the tradition inaugurated by Titchener and continued by the Psychological Round Table. Apparently, the experimentalists’ dissatisfactions had been growing for years so that by the late 1950s there was a perception that the APA was catering to the interests of psychologists in professional practice (Dewsbury & Bolles, 1995). The proximal stimulus for the formation of the group was the decision by the APA Board of Convention Affairs in 1959, later reversed, that no one could use slides as part of his or her presentation. This, for many experimentalists, was the last piece of evidence needed that the APA convention was not about scientiﬁc communication. A small group of psychologists went to work over the summer of 1959 to drum up support for a new, more science- oriented society. Led by William Verplanck (b. 1916) and Clifford Morgan (1915–1976), an organizing committee began meeting to form the new society. When letters of invi- tation sent out to members of the APA science divisions indi- cated that there was more than adequate interest for such a society, the organizing committee met in late 1959 and de- veloped by-laws to govern the as-yet unnamed society (Dewsbury & Bolles, 1995). The name Psychonomic Society was agreed on in early 1960, and the society was incorpo- rated in April of that year. The purposes of the society were two: to conduct an an- nual meeting to exchange research results and to develop a journal to publish the results. In terms of structure, the Psy- chonomic Society was the anti-APA. The group refused to develop the bureaucratic machinery they disliked in the larger association. Instead, they chose to govern their affairs through a governing board, which was empowered to do busi- ness on behalf of the society. From its inception to the time of this writing, the society has succeeded remarkably well in keeping its governance simple and maintaining its focus as a hard-nosed scientiﬁc psychological organization. The Psychonomic Society experienced rapid growth. Its membership standards were the PhD and a record of success- ful publication beyond the degree. Ironically, these were the standards for APA membership prior to 1926 (Fernberger, 1932). Although membership requirements have varied slightly over the years, including the development of an asso- ciate membership, the basic requirements have changed little. The membership total at the end of the ﬁrst year was 772. That number rose steadily over the years and had stabilized at approximately 2,000 members by the 1990s. Associate mem- bership also grew from its inception in 1975 to between 400 and 500 during the 1990s. At the end of the twentieth century, the Psychonomic Society published six major experimental psychology jour- nals. Journal publication had been one of the two primary purposes of the society at its founding, but it took several years before the society was able to begin its publishing pro- gram. It was able to do so through the generosity of one of its founders, Clifford T. Morgan. Morgan began a journal, Psy- chonomic Science, in 1964. This was followed in relatively quick succession by Psychonomic Monograph Supplements (1965) and Perception & Psychophysics (1966). In 1967, Morgan gave the journals to the Psychonomic Society. The society initially struggled with its management of the jour- nals but by the mid-1970s had overcome most of its publica- tion problems. The society split Psychonomic Science into four volumes and added others, so that by 2000 it published AnimalLearning&Behavior, Behavior ResearchMethods, In- struments, & Computers, Memory & Cognition, Perception & Psychophysics, Psychobiology, and Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (Dewsbury, 1996). Other experimental societies have formed over the years in reaction to the size or policies of the APA. To note one other example, the Society of Experimental Social Psychol- ogy formed in 1965 to promote scientiﬁc communication among those social psychologists that viewed themselves as experimentalists. A small group of social psychologists de- cried the large meetings of the APA and the rapid growth of its Division 8 (Personality and Social Psychology). They, like the founders of the Psychonomic Society, wanted a society whose members were experimentalists. The initial intent of the group was to keep the society small in number. That pol- icy has been maintained, as indicated by its membership of only 600 by the year 2000 (Blascovich, 2000; Hollander, 1968). 544 Professional Organizations In 1988, the American Psychological Society (APS) was founded as the major alternative to the APA. The APS was widely perceived as a fundamental split between those psy- chologists whose primary identity was that of psychological scientist and those who thought of themselves as primarily professional practitioners. The reality was much more com- plex than that. The reorganization of the APA during the war gave applied interests a greater voice and created the possibil- ity of schism within the APA. The infusion of large sums of money from various federal agencies for psychological re- search and training, especially clinical training, raised the stakes over psychology’s identity. The once-small ﬁeld of clinical psychology grew out of all proportion to the rest of psychology and soon threatened the traditional centers of power in the APA. Tension between scientists and practition- ers grew in the decades after World War II as clinical psy- chologists became increasingly interested in independent practice and all the necessary accoutrements that accompany such practice: licensure, third-party payment, and the like. In the 1970s, practitioners began to gain greater inﬂuence in the APA governance structure and by the 1980s were ascendant. Some scientists and academics who felt threatened by these changes proposed that the APA be reorganized into a looser structure that provided more autonomy for academic psychol- ogists. When the reorganization plan failed in 1988, a large number of scientists/academics decided to form an alternative organization devoted to psychological science. Initially called the Assembly for Scientiﬁc and Applied Psyc

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hology, the group incorporated in 1988 as the APS with 450 founding members. That number grew rapidly to over 5,000 members within 6 months, and by 2000 the membership was approxi- mately 10,000. Many members of APS have also maintained membership in the APA. Although tension between the two groups ran high in the ﬁrst years after the split, there was a steady accommodation to each other through the 1990s. It has been more common, however, for new organizations to form simply around a specialty interest in psychological science. These groups proliferated in the last decades of the twentieth century and are too numerous to list here. The reader is referred to the World Wide Web sites of the Federa- tion of Behavioral, Psychological, and Cognitive Societies (www.thefederationonline.org) and the International Union of Psychological Sciences (www.iupsys.org) for links to many of these societies. Applied Psychological Organizations Despite the rhetoric of experimentalism, American psycholo- gists have been particularly interested in the application of psychological science from the ﬁrst days of organized American psychology (Benjamin, 1997a; Pickren & Dewsbury, 2002).Asmall number of psychologists worked in applied and professional settings in the early years of the dis- cipline. While many of them had free choice of career sites, others had few work options open to them by virtue of their gender or race (Guthrie, 1998; Stevens and Gardner, 1982). The establishment of the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1917 provided an outlet for research and a forum for profes- sional issues. World War I drew public attention to the poten- tial usefulness of applied psychology, especially in mental testing (Samelson, 1977). Two privately held companies were started after the war in an effort to build on this atten- tion: The Scott Company and The Psychological Corporation (Sokal, 1981). The number of psychologists interested in pro- fessional practice grew enough by the end of World War I to form a new professional organization, the American Associa- tion of Clinical Psychologists. Apparently threatened by this move, the APA co-opted the new organization by forming a Clinical Section in 1919 (Routh, 1994; Samelson, 1992). During the interwar period, the number of psychologists engaged in various professional practices dramatically in- creased. By one count, 39% of APA members were employed in applied work in 1940. By comparison, only 9.3% of APA members were employed in a recognizably applied setting in 1916 (Finch & Odoroff, 1939, 1941). It should be kept in mind that a doctoral degree and publications were required for APA membership in this period, and many applied psy- chologists worked at the master’s level. Four semidistinct areas of practice emerged in this period: clinical, consulting, educational, and industrial/business. The settings for these practices included schools, clinics (of various kinds), homes for the mentally retarded, courts, prisons, police departments, psychiatric hospitals, guidance ofﬁces in educational settings, psychotherapy ofﬁces, social agencies, state and federal agencies, ﬁlm and radio studios, personnel ofﬁces, advertis- ing and marketing ﬁrms, life insurance companies, and pri- vate consulting ﬁrms. At least 83 APA members earned their living primarily from fee-based consultations in 1940. This growth is also reﬂected in new psychological organi- zations that were formed between the wars. The APA mem- bership standards favored academic scientists engaged in experimental research and made it difﬁcult for psychologists with applied expertise to either gain membership or wield signiﬁcant inﬂuence within the organization (Napoli, 1981; O’Donnell, 1979). Finally, in 1926, the APA established a second-class associates membership, at least in part to help ﬁnance a new publishing venture. (In 1946, the membership categories were revised: full members became fellows, asso- ciates became “members,” and a new category of associates was developed, primarily for people without doctorates.) National Psychological Associations 545 Associates could not vote or hold ofﬁce in the APA. Many of the associates were psychologists interested in application and the practice of psychology. One new organization that formed in this era (1921), the New York State Association of Consulting Psychologists, be- came the leading state association for applied work in psy- chology and was emulated by other state and regional groups. The New York group joined with other regional groups and reformed as the Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP) in 1930. The ACP promoted professional issues such as training and licensing for all applied psychologists. In 1937, the ACP merged with other applied groups to form the American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP), which, like the ACP, was concerned with issues relevant to professional practice. The AAAP was able to develop a na- tional voice for professional psychology before the onset of the Second World War, though its voice was somewhat muted by the dominance of academic psychologists and the lack of proportionate representation of women among its leadership (Benjamin, 1997a; Capshew, 1999). The Journal of Consulting Psychology was the ofﬁcial publication of the AAAP and reported on both research and practice issues of professional psychology. The issue of appropriate training for the practice of psychology, in all ﬁelds but particularly in clinical psychology, was frequently discussed in the pages of the journal and at the annual meet- ings of the association. It was not directly addressed until after World War II, when the scientist-practitioner (Boulder) model developed by AAAP member David Shakow became the primary model of acceptable training. In a few short years, the AAAP made substantive progress on behalf of its members. When the APA was reorganized during the Second World War, the AAAP was incorporated into the APA as part of the effort to make the APA more in- clusive and responsive to both scientiﬁc and professional concerns (Capshew & Hilgard, 1992). Section D, Industrial and Business, of the AAAP became APA Division 14, Indus- trial and Business Psychology. The new division sought to ensure that appropriate standards of training and practice were maintained and that industrial psychology remained on a solid research basis. Division 14 members decided to incorporate as a separate society, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psy- chology (SIOP), in 1982. This was the result, in part, of dissatisfaction with what was perceived as APA’s overem- phasis on practice issues at the expense of science. When the APS formed in 1988, SIOP membership was opened to APS members as well as APA members. Despite these changes, it is clear that SIOP is the historical successor to the AAAP (Benjamin, 1997a). During the 1930s, several states began certiﬁcation programs for school psychologists (Fagan, Hensley, & Delugach, 1986; French, 1984). A number of those psycholo- gists belonged to the ACP and then the AAAP. One of the charter divisions of the reorganized APA was Division 16, School Psychology. However, many school psychologists did not qualify for membership in Division 16 because they did not have a doctoral degree. Historically, school psychology has been dominated by nondoctoral professionals (Fagan, 1996). Growth of Division 16 membership was steady but slow, even though the number of school psychologists was expanding rapidly. By the 1960s, it became clear that Divi- sion 16 was not responding adequately to the needs of nondoctoral school psychologists. As a result, a need for a na- tional organization that could represent all school psycholo- gists led to the founding of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) in 1969 (Fagan, 1996). Membership rose steadily from the founding of the NASP and stood at 21,000 plus in 2000. The association devel- oped an impressive track record of working to raise educa- tional and training standards. Accreditation of training programs became an important part of the NASP’s work as well (Fagan, Gorin, & Tharinger, 2000). Applied psychological organizations proliferated in the last decades of the twentieth century. Space does not allow for all of them to be described. A few chosen to serve as ex- amples include the American Association of Correctional Psychologists (founded 1953), the International Society of Sport Psychology (founded 1965), the Association for the Ad- vancement of Behavior Therapy (founded 1966), the Associa- tion forApplied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (founded 1969), and the Society of Psychologists in Management (founded 1984). Hundreds of other applied psychological or- ganizations had been established in the United States alone by the end of the twentieth century (see VandenBos, 1989). Psychological Organizations in the Public Interest The 1960s were a time of social upheaval and dissent in the United States and much of Europe. During this period, psy- chological organizations were formed to represent groups that had been traditionally ignored or underrepresented in mainstream psychological organizations. In the United States, these new organizations were typically formed as a re- sponse to perceived problems with the APA. The APA was perceived as insensitive to the needs and interests of women psychologists and psychologists of color. The Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) was founded in 1968 at the annual convention of the APA. It was not the ﬁrst organization ofAfricanAmerican psychologists. In 546 Professional Organizations 1938, psychologist members of the American Teachers Asso- ciation, an all-black educational group, formed Division 6, Department of Psychology, to facilitate communication and strengthen their professional identity (Guthrie, 1998). Divi- sion 6 sent representatives to the Intersociety Constitutional Convention that led to the reorganization of the APA during WorldWar II (Capshew, 1999). However, theATA’s Division 6 was unable to maintain its momentum after the war. In 1963, the APA, at the urging of the SPSSI, formed the Committee on Equality of Opportunity in Psychology (CEOP) to examine the status of education, training, and career paths of African Americans in psychology (Wispe et al., 1969). However, many black psychologists were dis- satisﬁed with the slow pace of the APA committee and were frustrated with what they perceived as the APA’s neglect of their African American members, the low numbers of African Americans in APA governance, and the strikingly few black APA employees. By the second half of the 1960s, a new pride in African American identity had emerged as was evidenced by the focus on Black Power and Black Nationalism. Many younger African American psychologists simply did not identify with the APA, perceiving it as conservative and heavily invested in white, middle-class values. Their anger and frustration came together at the annual convention of the APA in San Francisco (B. Williams, 1997). A small group meeting in a hotel room during the 1968 APA convention grew into a larger meeting of 200 African American psychol- ogists the next day (R. Williams, 1974). Out of this meeting, the Association of Black Psychologists was formed (Guthrie, 1998). ABPsi grew into a thriving organization with its own agenda, its own mission, and its own identity. It became the professional organization of choice for many African American psychologists. ABPsi holds annual meetings (twice in African countries), has an active publication pro- gram that includes the quarterly Journal of Black Psychology, the monthly newsletter Psych Discourse, the Association of Black Psychologists Publication Manual, and the Source- book on the Teaching of Black Psychology . Following a dramatic confrontation of the APA leadership by the newly formed Black Students in Psychology Associa- tion (BSPA) during the 1969 convention, ABPsi and BPSA cooperated in persuading the APA to address the concerns of black psychologists about culturally biased testing practices, lack of employment opportunities for African Americans in psychology, and inadequate recruitment and support of black graduate students (R. Williams, 1974). The events of 1968 and 1969 had effects that reverberated over the next several years. Hispanic psychologists and Asian American psycholo- gists also formed organizations and put pressure on the APA to become more sensitive and supportive of their issues. As a result, the APA formed the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs and opened the Ofﬁce of Ethnic Minority Affairs. The latter has been an important conduit of training monies for ethnic minority graduate students. In the early 1970s, two brothers, Derald (b. 1942) and Stanley (b. 1944) Sue, coordinated a series of meetings in San Francisco that included a variety of professionals in- volved in mental health issues in the Asian community. These meetings eventually led to the founding of the Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA) in 1972. Mem- bership was small at ﬁrst, and the group struggled to maintain cohesion (Leong, 1995). Despite this small beginning, the AAPA had a membership of over 400 by the year 2000. Although Asian mental health was the original concern of the AAPA, since that time the organization has diversiﬁed in its interests. Advocacy efforts on behalf of Asian Americans led to involvement on U.S. Census issues and to a long en- gagement against the English-only movement in California. Members of the AAPA developed Asian American psycho- logical theory that was applied to a range of psychological topics, including clinical training and social research. Lead- ers of the association were among the very ﬁrst to develop theory and practice related to multicultural counseling. The National Institute of Mental Health relied on the association to assist it in its efforts to diversify its training population, and members of the AAPA served as key liaisons to the NIMH and other federal agencies for the development of mental health policy. The AAPA developed close ties with the APA very early in its existence. AAPA members served on key boards and com- mittees of the APA, including the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs, the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, and the Committee for Ethnic Minority Recruitment, Retention, and Training. The AAPA began pub- lishing the Journal of the Asian American Psychological Association in 1979 and began a series of monographs in 1995 (Leong, 1995). In 1999, Dr. Richard Suinn (b. 1933) served as the ﬁrst Asian American president of the APA. In 1971, Carolyn Attneave (1920–1992) formed the Net- work of Indian Psychologists in the Boston area. About the same time, Joe Trimble (b. 1938) formed a group in 1971 called the American Indian Interest Group. Trimble’s group was formed with support from the SPSSI and was afﬁliated with it. In 1973, Trimble merged his group with the Network of Indian Psychologists. Attneave changed the name of her group to the Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP) around 1975 (Trimble, 2000). Membership in the SIP was always small, numbering around 100 at the end of the twentieth cen- tury. Members of the SIP and other Indian psychologists National Psychological Associations 547 worked to increase the number of American Indian psycholo- gists in North America. One notable success was the Indians into Psychology Doctoral Education (INDPSYDE) started by Arthur L. McDonald (b. 1934) in the mid-1980s. By the end of the twentieth century, INDPSYDE programs were operat- ing at several colleges and universities in the West and there had been a noticeable gain in the number of American Indian psychologists. SIP members also worked with the APA and other ethnic minority psychology groups to support the de- velopment of rural minority mental health programs. In 1986, Logan Wright (1933–1999) was the ﬁrst person of American Indian heritage to be elected APA president. The National Hispanic Psychological Association grew out of an earlier organization of Hispanic psychologists, the Association of Psychologists Por La Raza (APLR), which was founded in Miami in 1970 during the APA convention (Bernal, 1994). The founding group was very small, but that number grew to around 40 as a result of an APLR symposium on Hispanic psychology at the 1971 APA convention. Over the next several years, Hispanic psychologists developed a professional network through NIMH-sponsored conferences and involvement with the APA’s Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs. In 1979, the National Hispanic Psychological Asso- ciation was formed and the ﬁrst issue of the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science was published. In general, all of the ethnic minority psychological associ- ations were involved in prompting the NIMH to become more involved with the support of training of ethnic minority psychologists. The APA, while it initially needed to be prod- ded by ethnic and minority psychologists, became a positive force for promoting and supporting the diversiﬁcation of psy- chology. In 1979, the APA opened its Ofﬁce of Ethnic Minor- ity Affairs and remained a major collaborator with ethnic and minority psychological associations. A direct descendant of the National Council of Women Psychologists (see above) was the Association for Women in Psychology. The NCWP, after it changed its name to the International Council of Psychologists, lost its main thrust of advancing the cause of women psychologists. That charge was taken up in the more radical and restive late 1960s by a number of women APA members (Tiefer, 1991). The Associ- ation for Women Psychologists (AWP) was founded by ap- proximately 35 women and men at the 1969 APA convention. In 1970, the group changed its name to the Association for Women in Psychology. Many of the original members were convinced that the APA was insensitive to the needs of women psychologists and supported discriminatory, sexist practices in both academic and professional psychology (Tiefer, 1991). For the ﬁrst years of its existence, the AWP lobbied for change within the APA. Issues that were most salient for the AWP in these years included abortion rights, ending sexist hiring and promotion practices in acade- mia, and adequate child care at the APA convention. One participant-historian characterized the ﬁrst years of the AWP–APA relationship as a time of “the public airing of women’s grievances with the APA and the profession of psy- chology” (Tiefer, 1991, p. 637). The AWP had immediate success in attracting many women psychologists and a few male psychologists as mem- bers. Thirty-ﬁve women and men formed the ﬁrst membership cohort; membership in the AWP grew to over 1,700 by the year 2000. For many years, the AWP avoided a hierarchical organizational power structure. All issues were open for dis- cussion by any member during the annual meetings. The asso- ciation was committed to feminist process and sought to be participatory-democratic in its governance. This led to lengthy business meetings but little activity between meet- ings. Like other organizations of its time, tensions existed over whether the organization should seek efﬁciency or democracy as its main governing principle. A compromise was reached in 1979 when the leadership structure was changed to governance by the Implementation Collective. This was a small number of AWP members who volunteered to serve in speciﬁc roles in order to facilitate speciﬁcAWP ini- tiatives. The collective set policy, ﬁnancial guidelines, and guidelines for forming committees to carry out various projects. Much of the work of the AWP was carried out by members who served on committees, most of which were gen- erated by members themselves and not by the leadership. The AWP worked on such salient issues as the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), abortion rights, and the removal of antiwoman diagnostic categories in the various revisions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . Members also developed guidelines for feminist therapy and worked to reduce racism and promote multicul- tural perspectives (Tiefer, 1991). One major outcome of the activities of the AWP in its early years was the formation of the APA Task Force on the Status of Women in Psychology. The task force worked for two years, and its report recommended that the APA act to re- dress the inequities women faced in organized psychology. A speciﬁc recommendation was the formation of a division to represent the interests of women in psychology (APA, Task Force on the Status of Women in Psychology, 1973). Despite some resistance from the APA Council of Repre- sentatives, some of whose members suggested that a division for women’s issues would only ghettoize and segregate women psychologists, the petition for a women’s division was approved. Division 35 was approved in 1973, and its charter called for it to work to advance the cause of women in 548 Professional Organizations psychology and to develop knowledge about women’s psy- chological lives. Although Division 35 was born from the tense relationship between the AWP and the APA, it was from the ﬁrst independent of the AWP. The division developed an organizational structure that had little overlap with the AWP (Mednick & Urbanski, 1991; Russo & Dumont, 1997). In its ﬁrst year of existence, Division 35 voted to develop a journal to serve as the primary publication of research in the ﬁeld of feminist psychology. The division’s journal, Psychology of Women Quarterly, began publication in 1976. Division 35 started with over 800 members and grew rapidly, becoming one of the largest divisions within the APA with more than 6,000 members by the year 2000. The growth of the division reﬂected the changing gender composition of American psychology. For example, in 1971, women earned 24% of all psychology doctorates compared to 66% in 1991 (Kohout, 2001). Between 1977 and 2000, the percentage of women APA members increased from 26.7% to 49.0%, and the high percentage of women in graduate programs suggests that this percentage will continue to grow. Accreditation and Credentialing Organizations In the United States, the growth of psychology as a mental health profession after World War II created the need for or- ganizations or structures to regulate and credential psycholo- gists engaged in the practice of professional psychology. The licensing of psychologists became a state matter and will not be discussed here. With the rise of professional psychology after the Second World War, a number of organizations developed to facilitate graduate training in professional psychology and to certify excellence of professional skills. These included the APA, the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), the As- sociation of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers (APPIC), the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology (NR), the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB), and the Veterans Administra- tion (VA) (Laughlin & Worley, 1991). The APA accepted the mandate proposed by the VA and the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) immedi- ately after the World War II to develop an accreditation process to identify those universities that were qualiﬁed to train clinical psychologists (Capshew, 1999, Pickren & Dewsbury, 2002; Sheridan, Matarrazo, & Nelson, 1995). Twenty-two universities formed the ﬁrst cohort of accredited graduate clinical training programs in 1947. That number ex- ceeded 700 by the year 2000. The scientist-practitioner train- ing model adopted by APA and accepted by the VA and USPHS was based on the work of David Shakow, which was formalized at the Boulder Conference in 1949 (Raimy, 1950). The issue of accreditation philosophy and guidelines was re- visited over the years at a number of conferences. The 1954 Thayer Conference on School Psychology addressed the de- sirability of accrediting school psychologist training pro- grams. The 1973 Vail Conference on Levels and Patterns of Professional Training laid the groundwork for the accredita- tion of schools of professional psychology offering the doctor of psychology degree. By the end of the century, APA accreditation was the standard for all doctoral-level training in the practice of psychology, including the predoctoral internship. Problems with the predoctoral internship led to the estab- lishment of the Association of Psychology Internship Centers in 1968 (Fox, 1990). The name was later changed to the As- sociation of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers (APPIC). The major issue that the APPIC addressed initially was matching intern candidates with appropriate training sites. The APPIC established a uniform notiﬁcation date, the second Monday in February. In the early 1970s, the APPIC began publishing its internship directory. The directory proved to be one of the most valuable contributions made by the association. APPIC is not an accrediting agency. Rather, it works to facilitate high-quality pre- and postdoctoral intern- ship training. The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) was established in 1947 as the American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology. The APA realized that it could not serve as the credentialing body for individual psycholo- gists. Yet, in order to certify proﬁciency in psychological practice and to protect the public from charlatans, an inde- pendent credentialing body was needed. The ABPP was funded through the 1950s by the APA and through the collec- tion of examination fees. The ABPP established the diplomate status as the level of certiﬁed proﬁciency in a psychological specialty and left the establishment and recognition of basic competence to the universities and eventually to the state licensing boards. Thus, the diplomate in professional psychology was established as a higher level of professional excellence. Three original specialties were recognized: clinical, personnel- industrial (later industrial-organizational), and personnel- educational (later counseling). School psychology was added in 1968. The ABPP acknowledged that there were many psychologists who had developed professional compe- tence prior to its establishment. Over 1,000 of these profes- sional psychologists, most of them clinicians and about half of them women, were grandparented in as the ﬁrst to receive diplomate status (see the 1949 APA Directory for a complete listing). National Psychological Associations 549 The board passed through a rather fallow period during the 1960s and 1970s as the number of applicants declined. At one point, the ABPP board of trustees even raised the possi- bility of disbanding the board (Bent, Packard, & Goldberg, 1999). The examination procedures were changed; the writ- ten exam was dropped and the oral component was changed to allow for more in vivo assessment. Various measures to in- crease the number of applicants and to reestablish close rela- tionships with the APA were discussed. In 1971, the ABPP board established a formal liaison with the APA Board of Professional Affairs. Also in hopes of reaching more psychol- ogists, in 1972 the board established six regional boards to re- cruit applicants and conduct the diplomate examinations. While the examination burden on the board of trustees was lessened by the regional boards, there was no hoped-for in- crease in the number of applicants, and the regional boards were disbanded in the 1990s. At the instigation of the health insurance industry, the APA agreed to work toward establishing a registry of quali- ﬁed psychologists who would be eligible for reimbursement for the provision of mental health services. At the request of the APA, the ABPP agreed to develop the registry in 1974. The ABPP board of trustees established the Council for the National Register of Health Service Providers (NR) and loaned the new organization money to help it get started. The NR was successful from its beginning in attracting psycholo- gists to membership. The ABPP and the NR soon fell into serious disagreement over their legal relationship, with the ABPP under the impression that the NR was a subsidiary or- ganization. The ABPP apparently hoped that the NR would help rescue it from its ﬁnancial troubles and that it would prove to be an enduring source of applicants for diplomate status. However, the leaders of the NR saw the relationship differently and in 1975 repaid the ABPP loan and declared that the NR was an independent organization. There ensued a period of intense acrimony between the leaders of the two organizations that did not diminish for several years. The ABPP recognized several more specialties in the 1980s and 1990s. By the year 2000, in addition to the four established specialties (clinical, counseling, school, and industrial-organizational), the ABPP had made diplomate sta- tus available for the specialties of clinical neuropsychology, forensic psychology, family psychology, health psychology, behavioral psychology, psychoanalysis, rehabilitation psy- chology, and group psychology. Each of these specialties had its own board of examiners and was independently incorpo- rated; thus, the ABPP served the function of general oversight of psychological specialties (Bent et al., 1999). In order to avoid conﬂict with the Commission for the Recognition of Specialties and Proﬁciencies in Professional Psychology established by the APA in 1995, the ABPP established the policy of referring all new specialties to the APA for ﬁrst consideration. The National Register of Health Care Providers in Psychology quickly became a signiﬁcant component of pro- fessional psychology, as noted above. The ﬁrst National Reg- ister listed 7,000 psychologists in 1975; by 2000 the list had grown to more than 16,000 psychologists. The National Reg- ister was successful in providing a deﬁnition of the psychol- ogist as a health service provider and in gaining acceptance across North American for the deﬁnition. In 1976, the NR was innovative in naming public members to its board of di- rectors, being the ﬁrst national psychology organization to do so. The National Register developed predoctoral internship criteria in 1980 and required that any psychologist who wished to be listed in its directory must have completed such an internship. These criteria were later adopted by the APPIC as the criteria for membership. The National Register also worked with the Association of State and Provincial Psy- chology Boards (ASPPB) to establish criteria for doctoral programs in psychology for the purpose of licensure of psy- chologists after the doctoral degree. The Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB) was founded in 1961 as the American As- sociation of State Psychology Boards. In addition to its work with the National Register and with other accrediting and cre- dentialing organizations, the ASPPB developed the national examination in professional psychology (Carlson, 1978). It worked over the remainder of the twentieth century on licen- sure reciprocity between the states, continuing-education standards, and other professional issues. The ASPPB adopted the APPIC internship criteria as the basic standard for deter- mining whether an applicant for licensure met the require- ment for a predoctoral internship. Interdisciplinary Organizations Psychology was an important part of many interdisciplinary organizations that formed over the course of the twentieth century. As of this writing, there were far too many such organizations to even list them all. We provide a short list, emphasizing their variety, and then provide a brief account of two interdisciplinary organizations. The American Orthopsychiatric Association was formed in 1924 for mental health professionals, primarily psychia- trists and psychologists, who were chieﬂy concerned with problems of delinquency and other behavior disorders of childhood and adolescence (Lowrey, 1948). In 1957, the Human Factors Society of America was formed by and for scientists and technologists working on 550 Professional Organizations problems of human–machine interaction. Disciplines or pro- fessions represented in the society include psychologists, en- gineers, physicians, and physiologists. The name of the group was changed to the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society in 1992. Membership at the end of the twentieth century was approximately 5,200. The Cognitive Science Society was established in 1979 to promote interdisciplinary work in cognition. Its members in- clude psychologists, linguists, computer scientists, educators, and philosophers. The Society of Behavioral Medicine was founded in 1978 for professionals and scientists from psy- chology, medicine, public health, and nursing. The focus of the society is on the relationships among behavior, health, and illness. In the 1920s, interest grew in developing a science of child development. Both the Commonwealth Fund and the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation gave large grants to start or sustain child development institutes (Lomax, 1977). In 1925, the National Academy of Sciences formed a Committee in Child Development. In 1927, the committee published the ﬁrst compendium of research in child development, Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography . In 1933, the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) was or- ganized and the Committee on Child Development was disbanded. After a period of growth in the 1930s, the SRCD experienced a decrease in members and activities in the 1940s, followed by an expansion in numbers and activities that continued to the end of the century. In 2000, membership in the society exceeded 5,000 and comprised scientists and professionals from many disci- plines, including psychology. The society’s publishing pro- gram at the beginning of the twenty-ﬁrst century included three journals: Child Development, Child Development Ab- stracts and Bibliography, and Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. Other society publications were The Social Policy Report, a newsletter, and a member- ship directory. The society became active in the formulation of social policy applications based upon child development research. To this end, the society established a Government Fellows Program in Child Development in 1978. The fellows worked to keep the relevant federal agencies informed of child re- search and to facilitate the development of social policy based upon scientiﬁc research (Hagen, 2000). The World Federation for Mental Health (WFMH) was or- ganized in 1948. Its predecessor was the International Com- mittee for Mental Hygiene, an organization founded in 1919 by Clifford Beers (Dain, 1980). Beers had been an asylum patient as a young man and upon his discharge wrote an exposé of the horrors and ineptitude of the asylum system. A Mind That Found Itself (1908) was an international best-seller. Beers took advantage of his public visibility and founded the National Committee for Mental Hygiene (NCMH) in 1909. The NCMH worked to reform psychiatric institutions and treatment. Citizen groups and medical professionals in other coun- tries organized equivalent societies, and Beers was encour- aged to start a new international group. He did so in 1919, and the International Committee for Mental Hygiene (ICMH) was formed with broad support from a wide array of mental health professionals and citizen groups. The ICMH held the First International Congress on Mental Hygiene in 1930 in Washington, D.C. The congress had over 3,000 registered at- tendees, among them all the leading ﬁgures in psychiatry, psychology, and social work as well as many prominent po- litical and medical ﬁgures. By the advent of the Second Inter- national Congress on Mental Hygiene held in France in 1937, enthusiasm and support had waned. The congress was much smaller and bedeviled by complaints about the inﬂuence of Nazi sympathizers (Dain, 1980). Beers made plans to hold another congress, but World War II prevented its occurrence. Beers died before the end of the war, and the international movement had no effective leader. After the war, UNESCO and the World Health Organiza- tion (WHO) prompted mental health professionals from many countries to convene the Third International Congress on Mental Hygiene in London. The two UN agencies sought to stimulate a new international mental health organization that was less dominated by psychiatry and more inclusive of other human and social sciences (Rees, 1963). A commission was formed and supported by UNESCO and WHO to draw up plans for the new organization. In 1948, the World Feder- ation for Mental Health was founded at the Third Interna- tional Congress for Mental Hygiene (Brody, 2000). The federation grew after its inception to include a wide array of individual mental health providers and researchers, users of mental health services, and nongovernment organiza- tions. Membership in the WFMH in the year 2000 stood at 170 nationalorinternationalorganizational members, 170regional afﬁliate members, and more than 2,300 individual members. The major work of the federation is to promote mental health worldwide through a wide array of educational and advocacy efforts. To that end, it holds regional conferences, a biennial congress, and publishes a newsletter. The federation is an ap- proved mental health consultant to every major UN agency. CONCLUSION Scientiﬁc and professional psychological societies and asso- ciations proliferated over the course of the twentieth century. Organizations such as those discussed in this chapter played References 551 several important roles in the development of both the sci- ence and profession of psychology. Over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientiﬁc knowledge came to form the basis for social and professional authority. Scientiﬁc and professional organizations shared in and en- hanced this authority by providing a communal voice for the claims of their science or profession. This, in turn, led to in- creased credibility for claims to expert knowledge or practice (Appel, 1988; Hardcastle, 2000; Sokal, 1992). Scientists have recognized this for several centuries, as witnessed by the creation of scientiﬁc societies as each new realm of knowledge was discovered and professionalized (Frangsmyr, 1989; Shapin, 1996; Starr, 1982). Scientiﬁc and professional organizations also exercise a certain measure of control over what counts as scientiﬁc knowledge or professional expertise (Pickren, 1995). This control allows them to exert authority over what qualiﬁes an individual to participate in the knowledge-production or pro- fessional practice process. In this way, scientiﬁc and profes- sional societies act as gatekeepers of social and professional authority. The society or professional organization serves to set off areas of inquiry or practice that belong to that science or prac- tice and thus demarcate the boundaries of knowledge and practice (Abbott, 1988). These boundary lines allow for the deﬁnition of problems and the delineation of methods that are appropriate for the science or profession. In this way, they fa- cilitate the formation of professional identity (Gieryn, 1983, 1999). The provision of professional identity is another important role played by organizations. A woman who belongs to the Cognitive Science Society, for example, has as part of her sense of professional self the identity of cognitive scientist that such membership provides. A national psychological so- ciety that belongs to the IUPsyS shares in the identity of in- ternational science that the larger organization provides. Often, there is a sense of exclusivity provided as part of this identity. For example, only one national organization per country can belong to the IUPsyS, and only 50 psychologists at a time could belong to Titchener’s Experimentalists. There is often overlap in the knowledge claims and realms of practice among different sciences and professions. These scientiﬁc and professional borderlands have often led to ﬁerce rivalry, but they also have led to the creation of inter- disciplinary organizations (Pickren, 1995). Such interdisci- plinary societies are more likely to form where there are problems that are perceived as falling within the purview of more than one science or profession. The creation of the American Orthopsychiatric Association is one professional example, and the Society for Research in Child Development is another. At the end of the twentieth century, a new pattern of sci- entiﬁc and professional organizations had emerged. Increas- ing specialization of knowledge led to the rapid growth of many specialty societies. For an example, the reader is en- couraged to visit the World Wide Web site of the Federation of Psychological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Societies (www.thefederationonline.org). The federation comprises 19 different societies ranging in size from the very large APA to the very small Society of Judgement and Decision-Making. As these specialty societies proliferate, many psychologists have chosen to belong to only their specialty group rather than to a larger association such as the APA or American Psy- chological Society that represents a broader, more inclusive view of psychology as both science and profession. A poten- tial problem with this increased specialization is the further fractionation of organized psychology (Fowler, 1992). 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Dissertation Abstracts Inter- national (UMI Number: 9822882). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Williams, R. (1974). A history of the Association of Black Psychol- ogists: Early formation and development. Journal of Black Psy- chology, 1, 9–24. Wilpert, B. (2000). International Association of Applied Psychol- ogy. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 336–337). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Wispe, L., Awkard, J., Hoffman, M., Ash, P., Hicks, L. H., & Porter, J. (1969). The Negro psychologist in America. American Psy- chologist, 24, 142–150. Author Index 555 Abbott, A., 71, 551 Aberle, S. D., 75, 81 Abrams, D. M., 287, 298, 462 Abramson, L. Y., 351, 353 Ackerknecht, E. H., 305, 333 Ackerman, M. C., 283, 292, 297 Ackerman, M. J., 283, 292, 297 Ackernecht, E. H., 49, 62 Acord, J., 5, 21 Adams, G., 230, 242 Adams, H. E., 292, 298, 299 Adams, W., 282, 299 Adelman, J., 63, 258, 264 Ader, D. N., 264, 454, 455, 456 Adler, H. E., 3, 20, 63, 158, 178, 187, 200, 343, 348, 531, 537, 552 Adorno, T. W., 233, 242 Adrian, E. D., 50, 62, 97 Agronick, G., 251, 267 Ahmed, R. A., 510, 531 Aiman-Smith, L., 377, 385 Ajamu, A., 493, 506 Akbar, N., 484, 505 Akiskal, H. S., 352, 353 Albee, G., 39, 441, 444, 446, 483, 486, 487, 494, 505 Albright, T. D., 62 Alexander, F., 340, 344, 353, 453, 454, 461 Alexander, I. E., 193, 196 Alexander, P., 276 Allen, L., 448 Allen, M., 479 Allport, F. H., 8, 23, 181, 184, 188, 196, 201, 228, 229, 233, 235, 237, 240, 242, 243 Allport, G., 13, 20, 177, 178, 179, 181, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 224, 230, 242, 252, 264, 490 Allport, M. B., 195, 197 Allyon, T., 331, 334 Almeida, L., 283, 300, 325 Alpers, B. J., 326, 333 Alpert, R., 210, 221 Altman, B. E., 446 Altman, I., 437, 449 Amaral, D. G., 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 401, 411 Ames, L. B., 85, 88, 89, 210, 219, 252 Amsel, A., 170, 172 Anagnostopoulou, T., 461 Anastasi, A., 294, 298 Andersen, P., 61, 65 Anderson, H. H., 208, 217 Anderson, J. R., 146, 148, 152 Anderson, J. W., 187, 197 Anderson, L. S., 444 Anderson, N. B., 455, 461 Angeletti, P. W., 163, 174 Angell, J. R., 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20, 67, 70, 71, 80, 81, 382, 385, 509, 531 Angell, R. C., 190, 199 Angier, R. P., 167, 168, 172 Apfelbaum, E., 230, 238, 241, 242, 263, 265 Appel, T., 535, 540, 551 Appelbaum, P., 403, 407, 408, 409, 411 Appleby, D. C., 479 Archer, R., 282, 286, 298, 300 Ardilla, R., 516, 531 Arnold, M. B., 24, 31, 158, 161, 165, 172, 174, 175, 208, 334, 344, 392, 411, 417 Aronson, L. R., 72, 76, 81, 173, 237, 242, 244 Arvey, R. D., 380, 385 Asbell, B., 433, 444 Asch, S. E., 17, 20, 232, 233, 234, 238, 242 Ash, M., 119, 131, 232, 233, 242, 467, 478 Ash, P., 508, 554 Asher, S. R., 212, 217 Asken, M. J., 459, 462 Aslin, R. N., 214, 217 Astin, H. S., 260, 261, 480 Atkinson, J. W., 132, 195, 197, 252, 267, 287, 298, 300 Atkinson, R. C., 126, 127, 131 Atthowe, J. M., 328, 334 Attneave, F., 20, 490, 546 Atwood, G. E., 193, 202 Au, T. K., 146, 152, 477 Aubrey, J., 311, 334 Austin, J. T., 54, 64, 75, 198, 243, 267, 300, 367, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 438, 441 Averill, J. R., 164, 171, 172, 174 Awkard, J., 508, 554 Ax, A. F., 163, 173 Ayllon, T., 350, 353 Azrin, N. H., 350, 353 Azuma, H., 511, 531 Baban, A., 459, 461 Back, K. W., 234, 237, 242, 250 Baer, D. M., 211, 218 Baillargeon, R. L., 146, 152 Bain, A., 85, 108, 158, 173 Bain, R., 182, 197 556 Author Index Baistow, K., 238, 242 Bakeman, R., 216, 217 Baker, D. B., 28, 36, 43, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 346, 353, 357, 364, 483, 492, 493, 505 Baker, R. W., 290, 301 Baker, S., 479 Balance, W. D. G., 4, 21 Balch, P., 440, 448 Baldwin, A. L., 193, 197 Baldwin, B. A., 99, 108 Baldwin, J. M., 12, 16, 20, 80, 81, 100, 206, 207, 209, 209, 217, 223, 225, 226, 227, 242, 512, 519 Baldwin, M., 399, 408 Bales, R. F., 234, 242 Ball, S., 272, 276, 349 Balst

bundet

progress in, 332–333 deﬁnitions, 304–305 early attempts at classiﬁcation, 305–306 experimental psychopathology, 326–328, 333 legal views of mentally ill, 306–307 organic vs. functional psychoses, 329–330 periods in history of: classical period, 307–310 from Middle Ages to eighteenth century, 310–315 eighteenth century to mid-nineteenth century, 315–318 late-nineteenth century into twentieth century, 318–325 twentieth century, 325–333 into twenty-ﬁrst century, 333 popular myths of psychopathology, 304–305 psychopharmacology, 331 recent approaches, 330–332 theories of origin and research in antisocial personality, 330 “Third Force” and the new therapies, 332 typologies of mental illness, 328–329 Accreditation/credentialing organizations, 548–549 Achievement, measuring (assessment psychology), 294–296 Action commune, 49 Action research vs. prevention science, 442–443 Adolescent psycholegal issues, 407–408 Africa, professional organizations in, 540 African Americans. See Ethnic minorities America: early history of psychology in, 6–8 personality and psychology in, 183–186 professional organizations, 540–544 rise of laboratories in, 8 trend from Americanization to internationalization, 515–516 American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP), 344, 545 American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP), 34, 343, 544 American Association of Correctional Psychologists, 545 American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology (ABEPP), 37, 346 American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), 548–549 American Indian Interest Group, 546 American Orthopsychiatric Association, 549 American Psychological Association (APA): activism in, 500 Congressional Science Friendship Program, 41 Division of Personnel and Guidance Psychologists, 361 founded, 28 split, 544 women and, 261–262, 547–548 American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS), 41 American Psychological Society (APS), 544 American Psychology-Law Society (AP-LS), 541–542 Amicus curiae briefs, 395–396, 404–406 Analytical curricular model, 472–474 Analytic introspection, 100 Animal psychology, 13–15, 119–120, 349. See also Comparative psychology “Animal spirits to animal electricity,” 312–313 Anti-psychiatry, 331–332 Antisocial personality, theories of origin and research in, 330 Applied psychological organizations, 344, 536, 538, 544–545 Approach-avoidance conﬂict, experimental neurosis and, 328 Aptitude measures (assessment psychology), 294–296, 360 Army Alpha/Beta, 281, 381 Army General Classiﬁcation Test (AGCT), 381 Artiﬁcial intelligence, 127–128 Asia, professional organizations in, 539 Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA), 546 Asian/Asian Americans, 490–492, 499–500, 503 Assessment psychology: achievement, aptitudes, and interests, 294–296 future, 296–297 intellectual ability, 280–283 neuropsychological functioning, 292–294 origins of, 279–280 personality characteristics and psychopathology, 283–292 behavioral methods, 291–292 interview methods, 289–291 relatively structured tests, 283–286 relatively unstructured tests, 286–289 rise of psychological testing in counseling psychology, 359–360 Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 545 Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, 545 Association for Women in Psychology (AWP), 260–261, 547–548 Association model, moral management and, 314–315 Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi), 487, 492–495, 545–546 Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP), 35 Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers (APPIC), 548 Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB), 548 Australia (professional organizations), 540 Autonomic Perception Questionnaire (APQ), 164 Balance theories (social psychology), 235–236 Behavioral assessment methods, 291–292 Behavioral Avoidance Test (BAT), 349–350 Behavioral ecology and comparative psychology, 77–78 Behavioral health/medicine, 455 Behavioral laboratories, rise of, 101–103 Behaviorism, 15–17 animal psychology and, 119–120 behavior therapy and, 330 580 Subject Index 581 cognitive, 122 emotion (and psychoanalysis) and, 169–171 Golden Age of Learning Theory and, 120–125 industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology and, 383 metaphysical, 122–125 methodological, 120–122 physiological, 123–124 radical, 124–125 stimulus-response theories, 120–122 Behavior modiﬁcation, 331 Behavior therapy, 330, 331, 349, 351 Bender Gestalt, 292–293 Binet scales, 280–281 Biofeedback, 164, 545 Biology/biological psychology, 148–150, 213–214, 332–333 brain, 48–51, 316–319, 325, 332–333 cognitive neuroscience, 59–62 color vision, 51–52 development, 213–214 experimental psychopathology, 333 intelligence, 148–150 learning and memory, 53–56 mind, 47–48 motivation and emotion, 56–59 new genetics, 333 pitch detection, 52–53 psychopathology, 332–333 sensory processes, 51–53 Black Students in Psychology Association (BSPA), 494, 546 Bonds, theory of, 141 Boulder model, 36 Brain: in biological psychology, 48–51 hemisphere theories, 317–318 lesions and psychopathology, 318–319 measurement, 332–333 pathology model of psychopathology and nervous diseases, 316–317 surgery, 325 theory of the evolution of (psychopathology), 318 British professional organizations, 262, 540 Business forces, and rise of I-O psychology, 377–379. See also Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology Business psychology, 29–30, 367 California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 285 Canada: professional organizations, 262, 540 U.S. International Congress (1954) held in, 512 Cartesian dualism and the veil of ideas, 114–115 Child: development (professional organizations), 550 guidance clinic (African American leadership), 489 psycholegal issues, 407–408 study, 12, 416 Children’s Apperception Test (CAT), 287 China, 511 Chronology of milestones, 517–531 Civil rights movement, 379–380, 487. See also Ethnic minorities Classical medical theory, 307 Classical world before Plato (cognition), 110–111 Classiﬁcation, 305–306, 315–316, 328–329 Clinical forensic evaluations, 407 Clinical problems frequently presented in therapy (ethnic minorities), 502 Clinical psychology, 337–355 future trends, 352–353 “nurturing zeitgeist,” 345–347 organizational struggles, 344–345 origins of, 32–33, 338–339 professional developments, 35–37, 347–348 school psychology and, 416 scientiﬁc art ( vs. artistic science), 339–340, 341 “sustaining zeitgeist,” 341–344 training models, 344–345 treatment interventions, 348–352 Clinico-anatomic method, 318 Cognition: comparative, 78–79 deﬁnitions, 87–90 developmental psychology and, 211 Cognition and learning: animal psychology and coming of behaviorism, 119–120 artiﬁcial intelligence, 127–128 behaviorism, 120–125 Cartesian dualism and the veil of ideas, 114–115 computing (key ideas of), 125–127 connectionist, subsymbolic, hypothesis, 128–131 early scientiﬁc period, 118–124 empiricist tradition, 115–117 idealist tradition, 117 impact of evolution, 118–119 levels (cognitive/algorithm/implementation), 127–128 mind design and architectures of cognition, 127–128 modern period: cognition after the scientiﬁc revolution, 115–117 modern scientiﬁc period, 125–131 philosophical period, 110–117 premodern period (cognition before the Scientiﬁc Revolution), 110–114 psychology of consciousness, 118 realist tradition, 117 scientiﬁc revolution and new understanding of cognition, 114–115 symbol-system hypothesis, 128 verbal learning tradition, 118 way of ideas: rejecting realism, 114 Cognitive behaviorism, 122 Cognitive behavior therapy, 349 Cognitive demons, 102 Cognitive neuroscience (biological psychology), 59–62 Cognitive processes/structures, intelligence arising from, 144–148 Cognitive psychology: computer metaphor of mind, 131 consciousness, 131 development, 131, 214 educational psychology and, 273–274 evolution, 131 meaning, 131 rise of (mentalism revisited), 19–20 today, 131 Cognitive realism, 113 582 Subject Index Cognitive science, 127–131, 550 Cognitive theory and I-O psychology, 383 Color vision/perception, 51–52, 96–97, 106–107 Comas and convulsions, 326 Committee on Equality of Opportunity in Psychology (CEOP), 546 Community, minority psychologists in, 488–490 Community involvement, 40 Community psychology, 349 action research vs. prevention science, 442–443 from community mental health to community psychology, 434–435 early developments, 431–435 ecological perspective/assessment, 436–439 economic boon and the GI bill, 432 preventive interventions, 440–443 race relations, 432–433 social ferment (1950s) and incubation of, 432 social problems in context of cultural norms/values, 439 social upheaval (1960s) and birth of, 433–434 strengths perspective, 435–436 Swampscott Conference, 435 World War II and, 440 Comparative psychology. See also Animal psychology academic societies, 76 behavioral ecology and, 77–78 comparative cognition, 78–79 European ethology, 77 evolutionary psychology and, 77–78 funding, 75 inﬂuences on, 76–79 journals, 76 periods in history of: forerunners, 68–69 early history, 68 before World War I, 69–71 between the wars, 71–74 since World War II, 74–76 persistent issues in, 79–82 personnel, 74–75 research centers, 75–76 sociobiology and, 77–78 soul-searching, 76 textbooks, 73–74 Computer technology and organizations (I-O psychology), 381–382 Computing, 90, 125–131 algorithm level, 127 artiﬁcial intelligence, 127–128 cognitive level, 127 cognitive science, 127–131 computational metaphor of mind, 127, 131 computational theories, 90 connectionist/subsymbolic hypothesis, 128–131 feedback, 125–126 implementation level, 128 information, 126–127 key ideas (three) of, 125–127 mind design and architectures of cognition, 127–128 program/computation, 127 symbol-system hypothesis, 128 Conditioned reﬂex, 327–328 Conﬂict theories, 167–171 Congressional Science Friendship Program, 41 Connection(s), theory of, 141 Connectionist/subsymbolic hypothesis, 128–131 Consciousness: cognitive psychology today, 131 psychology of, 118 way of ideas, 114 Correspondence problem, 87 gestaltists and, 105–106 psychophysicists and, 103–105 Counseling psychology, 30–31 beginnings of new profession, 30–31 diversiﬁcation in, 362 guidance movements, 358–359 identity question, 361–363 modern age of, 357–358 postwar growth, 37–38 rise of psychological testing, 359–360 vocational guidance, 359 vocational psychology, 359 World War II and training of psychologists, 360–361 Creative synthesis, 100–101 Cuban-American perspective in psychology, 497–499 Cultural diversity. See Ethnic minorities; Women and gender, psychology of “Culture of personality,” 179–180 Culture/society: correlates of illness, 455 development and, 214–215 intelligence and, 150 Cybernetics and social psychology, 234–236 Data treatment and research design, 9 Decision demon, 102 Degeneracy theory, 319–320 Depression, research on treatment of, 349–351 Depth psychology, and personality, 187 Desensitization procedures, 349 Developmental psychology, 131, 144–145 advances in theory and method, 213 biology of development, 213–214 characteristics of early theories of, 207–208 cognition, 131, 211, 214 culture, role of (in development), 214–215 emotion, 212 founders, 206–207 future, 217 institutes of child development, 208 intellectual development stages, 144–145 learning theory and psychoanalysis, 210 operant orientation, 210–211 periods in history of: 1880–1914, 206–208 1915–1940 (period of institutionalization and fragmentation), 208–210 1940–1960 (era of expansion), 210–211 1960–1985 (rise of contemporary themes), 211–213 1985–present (current period), 213–217 precocity, 211 social interaction/relationships, 212 social learning theory, 211–212 triad of towering theorists, 208–209 Subject Index 583 Diagnosis, 332 Direct perception, 89 Diversity and cultural difference, 259. See also Ethnic minorities; Women and gender, psychology of Draw-a-Man test, 287–288 Draw-a-Person (DAP), 288 Drug therapy/treatment, 331, 349–352 Dualism, 114–115, 236–237 Ecological perspective, community psychology, 436–439 Economic psychology, 367 Educational psychology: cognitive psychology’s inﬂuence, 273–274 contributions of early philosophers, 269–270 discipline today, 274 early developments in America, 271 effects of instructional psychology, 273 European inﬂuences (in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), 270–271 future, 276 goals, 274–276 school psychology and, 416 tracing progress through written record, 272 twentieth century developments, 271–272 Education/training in psychology. See Training/education in psychology Electronic publishing initiatives, 40 Emission theory of vision, 91–92 Emotion: behaviorism and psychoanalysis, 169–171 central/mental approaches to, 165–167 conﬂict theories, 167–171 developmental psychology and, 212 facial expression and, 166–167 future of, 170–172 peripheral/organic approaches to, 160–165 premodern history of, 157–159 themes in modern history of, 159 two distinct psychologies of, 159–160 variations in pheripheral/visceral activity, 163–165 Empiricism, 110, 115–117 Employment psychology, 367 Environmental health psychology, 455. See also Health psychology Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 380 Equilibration, 144 Ethical/professional issues: expert witness, 402–403 scientiﬁc amicus briefs, 405–406 Ethnic minorities: activism in APA, 500 Asian Americans in psychology (organization efforts by), 490–492 challenge of change: formation of the Association of Black Psychologists, 492–495 civil rights movement, 379–380, 487 community psychology and race relations, 432–433 confrontations and change, 486–488 doctoral programs in psychology, 493 hispanic ethnicity in psychology: Cuban-American perspective, 497–499 history of ethnic minority psychological publishing, 495–496 humanizing of psychology, 483–486 minority psychologists in the community, 488–490 models of racial and ethnic identity (origins of an ecological framework of identity development), 503–505 progress during 1999, 500–501 in research and organization, 499–501 treating ethnic minority clients, 501–502 client resistance and treatment effectiveness, 502 clinical problems frequently presented in therapy, 502 therapists’ reported levels of comfort, 502 Ethology, European, 77 Ethos, scientiﬁc, 183 Eugenics, 320 Europe/European: ethology, 77 inﬂuences (educational psychology) in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 270–271 professional organizations, 538–539 Evoked potentials, 50 Evolution/evolutionary theory: cognitive psychology and, 118–119, 131 comparative psychology and, 68–69, 77–78 Experimental psychology. See Scientiﬁc psychology Expert witness, psychologists as, 396–397, 401–403. See also Forensic psychology “Exploration” project, 187–189 Eyewitness memory, 396, 406–407 Facial expression and emotion, 166–167 Fear Survey Schedule, 291, 349–350 Feedback, 125–126. See also Biofeedback Feminism. See Women and gender, psychology of Fever therapies, 325–326 Figure drawing methods, 287–288 Five Factor Model, 285 Forensic psychology: amicus curiae briefs, 395–396, 404–406 basic knowledge domains, 398–399 child and adolescent psycholegal issues, 407–408 clinical forensic evaluations, 407 conceptualizations of insanity, 392–394 current issues in, 404–408 deﬁning, 391–392 early attempts to apply psychological/psychiatric knowledge to the legal system, 392–398 emergence as recognized subﬁeld, 398–404 ethical/professional issues in, 402–403, 405–406 eyewitness memory/testimony, 396, 406–407 forensic clinical evaluations, 400–401 future of, 408 journals/textbooks, 398 pre-1955 psychological writings about psychology and law, 397–398 professional organizations, 398 psychologists as expert witness, 396–397, 401–403 psychologists as trial consultants, 403–404 research advances, 406–408 training in, 399–400 Free association, 289 Functional analysis of behavior, 349 Functionalism, 127, 382–383 Functional/structural psychologies, 10–12 584 Subject Index Gender. See Women and gender, psychology of General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), 375 General paresis, 318 Genetics, new, 333 German psychology, 6, 185–189, 511–512 Gestalt psychology, 17, 105 correspondence problem, 105–106 industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, 383 GI Bill of Rights, 432, 466 Group-administered tests, 281, 360 Guidance movements, 358–359 Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRB), 293 Health psychology: American organizational efforts, 456–457 education/training, 459–460 in Europe, 460 formalizing as ﬁeld of inquiry/practice, 453–458 international organizational efforts, 457–458 professional practice, 458–459 roots of, 451–453 terminology, 455 Hispanics in psychology, 497–499, 500. See also Ethnic minorities Holland Self-Directed Search, 295–296 House-Tree-Person (HTP), 288 Human Factors Society of American, 549–550 Humanistic psychology, 349 Humanizing of psychology, 483–486 Human rights, 513, 514 Hypnosis, 313–314, 320–322 Idealist tradition, 117 Identity models, racial/ethnic, 503–505 Illusion, science of, 99–101, 106–107 Indians into Psychology Doctoral Education (INDPSYDE), 547 Individual differences, 12–13. See also Personality psychology Individual-social world (dualism revisited), 236–237 Inductive reasoning (theory of primary mental abilities), 142 Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, 38 business forces and, 377–379 conﬂuence of dynamic forces and, 373–384 employment opportunities in, 371–372 future, 384–385 intradisciplinary forces and, 383–384 labels and deﬁnitions, 367–368 legal forces and, 379–380 military forces and, 380–381 organization of, 372 psychological forces and, 382–383 rise of, 38, 367–373 scope of content, 368–370 socioeconomic forces and, 374–377 technological forces and, 381–382 training/education programs in, 370–371 Industrial revolution, 377 Information/information theory, 105, 126–127, 234. See also Computing Insanity, conceptualizations of, 392–394 Instructional psychology, and educational psychology, 273 Intellectual ability, evaluating: Binet scales, 280–281 brief methods, 282 frequency of test use, 282–283 group-administered tests, 281 Kaufman scales, 282 Wechsler scales, 281–382 Intellectual development stages, 144–145 Intelligence: biological bases of, 148–150 cognitive processes and, 146–148 cognitive structures and, 144–146 complexity vs. simplicity: intelligence as complex (Binet’s theory of judgment), 139–140 intelligence as simple (Galton’s theory of psychophysical processes), 138–139 culture/society and, 150 differential model, 137 as energy and sensitivity, 138 expert opinions on nature of, 136–137 models on nature of, 140–144, 151–152 bifactor theory, 142 hierarchical theories, 142–143 psychometric models, 140–142 radex model, 143 relations among the various models, 151–152 structure-of-intellect model, 143 theory of bonds, 141 theory of connections, 141 theory of ﬂuid and crystallized abilities, 142–143 theory of primary mental abilities, 141–142 theory of verbal/educational/spatial/mechanical abilities, 142 three-stratum theory, 143 two-factor theory, 141 operationally deﬁned, 136 systems models and, 150–151 Interamerican Society of Psychology (SIP), 537–538 Interest, measures of, 294–296, 360 International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP), 536, 538 International Committee for Mental Hygiene (ICMH), 550 International Council of Psychologists, 536–537, 547 International psychology: chronology of milestones in, 517–531 conﬂict over 1980 Congress (Leipzig), 514 development of modern psychology, 510–512 human rights (differing view on), 513 1913 International Congress (that wasn’t), 512 roots of, 510 social issues, psychologists’ evolving stand on, 514–515 trend from Americanization to internationalization, 515–516 U.S. International Congress (1954) held in Canada, 512 Young Psychologists Program, 512–513 International Society of Sport Psychology, 545 International Union of Psychological Sciences (IUPsyS), 535–536, 538 Interpersonal Cognitive Problem Solving (ICPS), 441 Interview methods: relatively structured formats, 290–291 relatively unstructured formats, 289–290 Japan, 511 Journals/textbooks/publishing: assessment psychology, 296 Subject Index 585 comparative psychology, 76 electronic publishing initiatives, 40 ethnic minority psychological publication, 495–496 forensic psychology, 398 Journal of Consulting Psychology, 545 professional journal within APA, 39–40 Kaufman scales, 282 Kiddie SADS, 291 Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD), 288 Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS), 295 Laboratory, psychological. See Scientiﬁc psychology Labor unions, 375 Law of effect, 121 Learning: cognition and ( see Cognition and learning) memory and (biological psychology), 53–56 psychoanalysis and theory of, 210 social, 211–212, 351 strategic learning model, 275 verbal, 118 Legal forces, and rise of I-O psychology, 379–380 Legal system. See Forensic psychology Legal views of mentally ill, 306–307, 392–394 Locus of control, 238 Logical positivism and operationism, 17–18 Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, 293 Magnetism and mesmerism to hypnosis, 313–314 Meaning (cognitive psychology today), 131 Melancholy, anatomy of, 311–312 Memory: Aristotle’s structure of human soul, 112 eyewitness, 396, 406–407 learning and (biological psychology), 53–56 long-term declarative (or explicit), 60 theory of primary mental abilities, 142 Mental chronometry, 3 Mental hygiene movement/organizations, 182–183, 550 Mental illness. See also Abnormal psychology: legal views of, 306–307, 392–394 typologies of, 328–329 Mental Status Examination (MSE), 290 Mental test, 280, 338 Meta-analysis, 351 Metaphysics, 110 metaphysical behaviorism, 122–125 metaphysical realism, 113–114 Methodological behaviorism, 120–122 Middle/Near East (professional organizations), 539 Military forces/world wars, 33–34, 360–361, 380–381, 440, 540–541 Army Alpha/Beta, 281, 381 Army General Classiﬁcation Test (AGCT), 381 GI Bill of Rights, 432, 466 Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), 285 Mind: active/passive (Aristotle’s distinction), 113 architectures of cognition, 127–128 biological psychology, 47–48 dualism, 452 holistic view of mind-body relationship, 452 Minnesota Employment Stabilization Research Institute (MESRI), 360, 375 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 284, 295 Minorities. See Ethnic minorities Mixed race identity, 503–504 Moral management and the association model, 314–315 Motivation and emotion (biological psychology), 56–59 Multiple personality, 324–325 Nancy School, 321 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), 545 National Council of Women Psychologists (NCWP), 260, 536–537, 547 National Hispanic Psychological Association, 547 National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH), 345, 347, 361 National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology (NR), 548, 549 National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE), 359 National Vocational Guidance Association, 362 Near and Middle East (professional organizations), 539 Neo-behaviorists, 18–19 NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), 285–286 Nervous diseases (neurosis and neurasthenia), 329 Network of Indian Psychologists, 546 Neuropsychological functioning, monitoring: Bender Gestalt, 292–293 test batteries, 293–294 Neurosis, 328, 329 New York State Association of Consulting Psychologists, 545 New Zealand (professional organizations), 540 North America, professional organizations in, 540–544 Nosological systems, 315–316 Noumena/phenomena, 117 Number (theory of primary mental abilities), 141 Operant orientation, developmental psychology, 210–211 Operationism, 17–18 Opponent-process theory, 51 Organic vs. functional psychoses, 329–330 Organizational psychologist, 38. See also Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology Organizations. See Professional organizations Pandemonium, 102 Perception. See Sensation and perception Perceptual realism, 113 Perceptual speed (theory of primary mental abilities), 142 Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), 286 Personality characteristics and psychopathology, identifying (assessment psychology), 283–292 behavioral methods, 291–292 ﬁgure drawing methods, 287–288 interview methods, 289–291 picture-story methods, 287 Rorschach Inkblot Method, 286–287 sentence completion methods, 288–289 structured tests, 283–286 unstructured tests, 286–289 Personality psychology: ambivalence in, 177–179, 189–190, 191–196 American psychology, 183–185 586 Subject Index Personality psychology: (Continued) case studies and life histories in, 177–179 context and complexity in, 195–196 culture of personality, 179–180 “exploration” project, 187–189 individualized assessment ventures, 191 intuitive method, 186 mental hygiene movement, 182–183 motives driving psychologists to study individuals, 193–195 multidisciplinary study of personality (1900–1930), 179–185 personological concepts, 187–189, 190–191 professional concerns, 184–185 psychiatry and psychopathology, 180–181 publication trends, 190 questioning of “science,” 194–195 reconceptualizing goals of, 194 roots of: American psychology, social ethics, and German psychology, 185–186 medicine/literature/”depth psychology,” 187 scientiﬁc case studies, 186–187 scientiﬁc ethos, 183 social context (importance of), 195 sociology and social work, 181–182 study of individual lives and individual differences, 179–196 Personology, 187–189, 190–191 Phenomena/noumena, 117 Philosophy, 1–2, 269–270 Phi phenomenon, 105 Phrenology, 49, 317 Physiological behaviorism, 123–124 Physiology and perception, 93–99 Picture-story methods, 287 Pitch detection (biological psychology), 52–53 Pneuma, doctrine of, 307 Popular psychology, 34 Precocity, 211 Prescriptive authority (RxP-) agenda, 41–42 Preventive focus: community psychology, 440–443 ethnic minorities, 489 Primary mental abilities, theory of, 141–142 Profession. See Psychology as profession Professional organizations: accreditation and credentialing, 548–549 Africa, 540 applied psychology, 344, 536, 538, 544–545 Asia, 539 Australia, 540 British, 262, 540 Canada, 540 Europe, 538–539 forensic psychology, 398 interdisciplinary, 549–550 international, 535–538 national, 538–550 Near and Middle East, 539 New Zealand, 540 North America, 540–544 public interest, 545–548 regional, 537–538 scientiﬁc, 542–544 South and Central American and the Caribbean, 539–540 specialized, 538 Progressive science (social psychology), 229–230 Psychiatry and psychopathology, personality and, 180–181 Psychoanalysis, 322–324 decline of, 330–331 emotion/conﬂict theories and, 169–171 Freud and, 322–324 health movement and, 453 popularity of, 343 Psychodynamic psychotherapies, 348–349 Psychodynamic theory (as framework for psychosomatic medicine), 453–454 Psychological Corporation, 378 Psychological forces, and rise of I-O psychology, 382–383 Psychological Round Table (PRT), 543 Psychological testing. See Assessment psychology Psychology as profession. See also Professional organizations associational developments, 41 beginnings of, 29–33 business psychologist, 29–30 clinical psychology, 32–33, 35–37 community involvement, 40 counseling psychology, 30–31, 37–38 decade of popular psychology (1920s), 34 electronic publishing initiatives, 40 identity struggles, 34–35 industrial psychology, 38 pioneering applications of psychological science, 28–29 postwar growth of practice of psychology, 35–39 prescriptive authority (RxP-) agenda, 41–42 professional journal within APA, 39–40 profession deﬁned, 27–28 school psychology, 31–32, 38–39 twentieth-ﬁrst century, 43 World War I and growth of psychological practice, 33–34 Psychology as science. See Scientiﬁc psychology Psychoneuroimmunology, 454–455 Psychonomic Society, 543 Psychopathology. See also Abnormal psychology: biological understanding of, 332–333 brain lesions and, 318–319 brain pathology model of, 316–317 experimental, 326–328, 333 personality characteristics and, 283–292 popular myths of, 304–305 psychiatry and (personality and), 180–181 theory of evolution of the brain and, 318 Psychopharmacology, 331, 349–352 Psychophysics, 2–3 correspondence problem and, 103–105 inner vs. outer, 48, 104 Psychoses (organic/functional), 324, 329–330 Psychosomatic medicine. See Health psychology Public interest psychological organizations, 545–548 Publishing. See Journals/textbooks/publishing Race relations. See Ethnic minorities Radex model, 143 Subject Index 587 Radical behaviorism, 19, 124–125 Rational calculator to error-prone subject, 236 Rationalism, 110, 111 Realism, 113–115, 117 Reason, 87–90 Reitan-Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery for Children, 293 Relativism, 110, 111 Representational theory, 110 Research design and data treatment, 9 RIASEC, 295 Roberts Apperception Test for Children (RATC), 287 Role Construct Repertory Test, 290, 349 Rorschach Inkblot Method, 286–287 Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB), 289 Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS), 291 School psychology, 31–32, 38–39 child study movement, 416 clinical psychology and, 416 compulsory schooling and, 415 deﬁning, 413 demographic description, 413 educational psychology and, 416 emergence as distinct ﬁeld (1920–1940), 418–420 employment characteristics and services, 414 future, 426–427 periods in history of: 1890–1969 (hybrid years), 414–422 1970–present (thoroughbred years), 422–426 literary developments, 418–419, 421, 424 organizational developments, 417, 418, 420, 423–424 origins of, 31–32, 414–417 practice characteristics, 418, 419–420, 421–422, 425–426 professional developments, 38–39, 417–418, 420–422 resources for studying, 427–428 test development, 417 training/credentialing, 413–414, 417–418, 419, 421, 424–425 Science, questioning of (personality), 194–195 Scientiﬁc amicus briefs, 395–396, 404–406 Scientiﬁc art ( vs. artistic science), 339–340, 341 Scientiﬁc ethos, 183 Scientiﬁc organizations, 542–544 Scientiﬁc psychology: American psychology, 6–8 animal psychology, 13–15 behaviorism, 15–17 child study, 12 cognitive psychology (mentalism revisited), 19–20 data treatment and research design, 9 discipline’s evolution, 6–8 evolutionary theory and, 7–8 experimental psychopathology, 326–328, 333 German psychology, 6 Gestalt psychology, 17, 105 individual differences, 12–13 logical positivism and operationism, 17–18 neo-behaviorists, 18–19 origins of, 1–3 philosophical context, 1–2 psychological laboratory/experiment, 3–6, 8–20 radical behaviorism, 19 scientiﬁc context, 2–4 mental chronometry, 3 psychophysics, 2–3 sensory physiology, 2 structural and functional psychologies, 10–12 Scientiﬁc revolution and cognition, 118–124 Scientiﬁc speciﬁcity and the social, 226–227 Scientist-practitioner model, 36 Seduction theory, 323 Self-Directed Search (SDS), 295–296 Sensation and perception: color perception, 96–97 ( see also Color vision/perception) correspondence problem, 87, 103–106 deﬁnitions (sensation/perception/reason/cognition), 87–90 emission theory of vision, 91–92 philosophical considerations (perceptual problem), 86–87 physics and visual perception, 90–93 physiology and perception, 93–99 progress of perceptual research, 106–107 rise of behavioral laboratories, 101–103 science of illusion, 99–101 Sensitive soul, 113 Sensory physiology, 2 Sensory processes (biological psychology): color vision, 51–52 pitch detection, 52–53 Sentence completion methods, 288–289 Sex differences and similarities, 253–254. See also Women and gender, psychology of Signal detection theory, 104–105 16PF, 285 Skepticism, 114, 116 Social context, and personality, 195 Social Darwinism, 319 Social ethics and personality psychology, 185–186 Social interaction/relationships (and developmental psychology), 212 Social issues, psychologists’ evolving stand on, 514–515 Social learning theory, 211–212, 351 Social Problem-Solving Skills (SPS), 441–442 Social psychology: balance theories, 235–236 Cold War/cybernetics and, 234–236 individual-social world (dualism), 236–237 interwar years, 229–231 locus of control, 238 making/ﬁnding social relevance, 230–231 modern to postmodern era, 239–241 movements for change, 236–239 post-mechanism/post-positivism, 232–236 progressive science, 229–230 from rational calculator to error-prone subject, 236 scientiﬁc speciﬁcity, 226–227 service to psychology/society, 227–229 social as dynamic and moral, 225–226 “social heavens” and the new century, 224–227 “a social psychology of social psychology,” 237–239 in transition, 238–241 World War II era, 232–234 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), 545 588 Subject Index Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), 35, 260, 541, 545, 546 Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP), 542–543 Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP), 546 Society of Psychologists in Management, 545 Sociobiology and comparative psychology, 77–78 Socioeconomic forces, and rise of I-O psychology, 374–377 Sociology and social work, and personality, 181–182 Soul (Aristotle’s structure of), 112 South and Central American and the Caribbean (professional organizations), 539–540 Spatial visualization (theory of primary mental abilities), 142 Special senses, 112 Stanford Achievement Test (SAT), 294 Stimulus-response theories, 120–122 Strategic Learning model, 275 Strengths perspective (strengths of persons and communities), 435–436 Stress and coping and disease, 454 Strong Interest Inventory, 295 Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB), 295 Structural and functional psychologies, 10–12 Structure-of-intellect model, 143 Subtractive method, 102 Swampscott Conference, 435 Symbol-system hypothesis, 128 Systematic desensitization, 349 Systems models and intelligence, 150–151 Tact, 124–125 Technological forces, and rise of industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, 381–382 Tell-Me-A-Story-Test (TEMAS), 287 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 287 “Third Force” and the new therapies, 332 Training/education in psychology: accreditation/credentialing organizations, 548–549 clinical psychology models, 344–345 confrontations and change, 486–488 doctoral programs, 486–487, 493, 499 forensic psychology, 399–400 health psychology, 459–460 industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, 370–371 school psychology, 413–414, 417–418, 419, 421, 424–425 undergraduate: analytical curricular model, 467, 472–474 assessing outcomes of, 473–474, 476 catalog studies and surveys of undergraduate curriculum, 467–469 catalytic forces, 476 context of American higher education, 465–467 curricular models (two), 467–472 deﬁning outcomes of, 472–473, 476 descriptive/prescriptive curricular model, 467–472 discipline-based curricula, 469–472 past as prologue for twentieth-ﬁrst century, 475–478 scholarship, 472–474 service, 474–475 students, 476 teaching, 467–472, 477 term “major,” 466 World War II and, 360–361 Transactional psychology, 89 Trapezoidal room, 89 Trial consultant (new roles for psychologists), 403–404 Undergraduate education. See Training/education in psychology, undergraduate United States Public Health Service (USPHS), 360–361 U.S. Employment Service (USES), 375 Veil of ideas, 114–115 Verbal comprehension/ﬂuency (theory of primary mental abilities), 141 Verbal learning tradition, 118 Veterans Administration, 360–361 Visceral patterning, 163–165, 453 Vision: color vision/perception, 51–52, 96–97, 106–107 emission theory of, 91–92 physics and visual perception, 90–93 spatial visualization, 142 Vivid persons, 193–194 Vocational guidance/psychology, 359. See also Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), 295 Way of ideas, 114 Wechsler scales, 281–382 Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT), 294 Will psychologists (volition/willpower), 275 Women and gender, psychology of: biases in diagnosis and clinical judgment, 257–258 clinical and counseling practice, 256–260, 263 collaboration and power sharing in therapy, 259–260 confronting backlash, 263–264 diversity and cultural difference, 259 feminist approaches to therapy, 258 feminist epistemology, 255–256 feminist study of women’s lives, 254 ﬁrst wave (c. 1876–1920), 251 frameworks for studying women and gender, 251–256 future, 262–264 methodological pluralism, 255–256 objectivity, redeﬁning, 255 organizations and activism, 260–262 psychology of gender, 254–255 recovering the past, 252 reﬂexivity, 255 research, scholarship, and pedagogy, 262–263 second-wave feminism and psychology, 250–251, 252–256 sex differences and similarities, 253–254, 359 subjectivity, 255 valuing women’s ways of being, 259 woman as problem, 252–253 women in context, 258–259 World Federation for Mental Health (WFMH), 550 World War I and II, 33–34, 360–361, 380–381, 440, 540–541 Young Psychologists Program, 512–513 Zone of proximal development, 145