On the Measurement of the Earth

bundet

235KARMANIA (F60, 64, 77–81, 83–6, 94, Map 6), district of southern Iran opposite the mouth of the PERSIAN GULF, under loose Seleukid control in Eratosthenes’ day.KARNA or KARNANA (F95, Map 6), largest city of the Minaioi in southern ARABIA, modern Ma’in in Yemen.KASION, MT. (F15–17, 96, Map 5), promontory on the Egyptian coast east of the Delta, modern Ras Qashrun.KASPIAN (F113), alternative name for the KAUSAKOS MOUN-TAINS, not generally accepted.KASPIAN GATES (F37, 48, 51–2, 55–6, 60, 62–4, 77–80, 83–6, 108, Maps 1, 5), major pass and route from the Iranian plateau into Central Asia, lying southeast of the Caspian Sea, seen as the end of the civilized world and known to Greeks since Alexander’s passage; an important point in Eratosthenes’ geographical scheme, perhaps the modern Sar Darrah pass in the Elburz mountains, but not certainly located among several candidates.KASPIAN SEA (F24, 33, 52, 108, 110, 112, Maps 1, 5), the modern Caspian Sea, believed in Eratosthenes’ day to be an inlet of the EXTER-NAL OCEAN.KASPIOS (F52, 108, Map 5), probably the pass on the main route be-tween the Black and Caspian Seas, perhaps modern Surami in Georgia.KATABATHMOS (F100, Map 4), the “Descent,” several places on the precipitous western Egyptian coast, most notably the “Great Kata-bathmos” at modern Sollum.KATTABANIA (F95, Map 6), frankincense-producing region of southern ARABIA, modern Qataban.KAUKASOS (F23, 47, 56, 60, 69, 71, 74, 78, 113, Maps 1, 5), speciﬁ-cally the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, dominated by the KAUKASOS MOUNTAINS, which can be used loosely to refer to the various mountains extending east of the Caspian Sea to north of INDIA, as far as the Himalayas.KELTIKA (F37, 131, 153, Map 3), loose term for northwest EUROPE, the region north of IBERIA, essentially modern France.KENCHREAI (F16, Map 4), the seaport on the Saronic Gulf side of the ISTHMOS of Corinth.KEPHISSIAN SPRINGS (F2, Map 4), Homeric locale (Iliad 2.523), one of the sources of the Kephisos River in Phokis, near LILAIA.KERKINA (F104–5, Map 3) and KERKINITIS (F105, Map 3), two adjoining islands off the African coast, modern Kerkennah Islands in Tunisia. On KERKINA was the city of the same name, modern Bordj el-Marsa.
236 GAzETTEERKERNE (F13, Maps 1, 3), Carthaginian trading post in West Africa, in decline in Eratosthenes’ day but still used by Greeks, location unknown.KILIKIA (F13, 47, 50–1, Map 5), district of south central Asia Minor, largely independent in Eratosthenes’ day.KINNAMOMOPHOROI (F34–5, 53, 57–8, 98, Map 6), ethnym, whose territory was the southernmost part of the inhabited world, “the land of the cinnamomum [cassia] bearers,” referring not to production of the plant but to traders of it. The region is the modern Somali coast.KIRKAION (F6, Map 3), the home of Kirke, usually identiﬁed with Monte Circeo on the Italian coast between Rome and Naples.KLEIDES (F130, Map 5), the easternmost point of CYPRUS, mod-ern Cape Apostolos Andreas.KOILE SYRIA (F60, 95–6, Map 5), “Hollow Syria,” speciﬁcally the upper Orontes valley in modern Syria and Lebanon, but often used gen-erally for interior SYRIA, west of northern MESOPOTAMIA.KOLCHIS (F13, 16, 47, 50–2, 120, 131, Map 5), region at the south-east corner of the Black Sea (essentially modern Georgia), originally as-sociated with the Argonauts, but by Eratosthenes’ time an area of Greek settlement, important for its trading contacts to the Caspian region and beyond.KOLYTTOS (F33, Map 4), district of ATHENS, southwest of the Agora.KOMMAGENE (F87–8, Map 5), district of southeast Anatolia, under Seleukid control in Eratosthenes’ day.KORINTHIAN GULF (F16, Map 4), the modern Gulf of Corinth.KORKYRA (F8–9, 133, Map 4), or Kerkyra, island off the northwest coast of Greece, which came under Roman control in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Corfu.KOTEIS (F100, Map 3), district of northwest AFRICA, probably the northern part of the ATLANTIC coast, just south of modern Cape Spartel.KRIOUMETOPON (F129, Map 4), the “Ram’s Head,” the southwest-ern promontory of CRETE, modern Cape Krion.KYANEAI (F52, Map 4), the “Dark Rocks,” rocks at the eastern end of the BOSPOROS.KYDNOS (F13, Map 5), river of southeastern Anatolia at Tarsos, the modern Tarsos Çay.KYMAIAN GULF (F6, Map 3), seemingly Eratosthenes’ term for the Bay of Naples, although peculiar because KYME is not on the bay.

237KYME (F7, Map 3), early Greek settlement on the coast just north of the Bay of Naples, closely allied with Rome in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Cuma.KYRENE, KYRENAIKA (F16, 23, 29, 59–60, 72, 101, 104, 129, Maps 1, 5), the most signiﬁcant early Greek city in Africa as well as its exten-sive surrounding territory, lying on a geographical parallel, but despite being Eratosthenes’ hometown of no particular importance in his geo-graphical scheme, modern Shahat in Libya.KYRNOS (F151, Map 3), the modern island of Corsica, a Roman province in Eratosthenes’ day.KYROS (F108–9, Map 5), river of the Caucasus region, part of the trade route between the Caspian and the Black Sea, the modern Mt-kvari and Kura in Georgia and Azerbaijan.LADON (F140, Map 4), river of the northwest PELOPONNESOS, retaining its ancient name.LAKONIA (F134, Map 4), district of the southwestern Peloponnesos.LECHAION (F16, Map 4), city on the Gulf of Corinth, the major port of Corinth.LEMNOS (F11, Map 4), island in the northern AEGEAN, under Athenian control in Eratosthenes’ day, and today retaining its ancient name.LEUKTRA (F139, Map 4), location in southwestern Boiotia, site of Theban victory over Sparta in 371 BC, at modern Parpoungia in Greece.LIBYA (F8, 13, 15–16, 33, 57, 98, 100, 104, 106, Maps 2, 1, 5), one of the three continents, essentially modern Africa, but always ex-cluding EGYPT and with little comprehension of the sub-Saharan regions.LIGYSTIKA (F134, Map 3), ancient name for the Iberian Peninsula, probably originally the territory around MASSALIA but generically southwest EUROPE; the more familiar Latin form is “Liguria.”LIXOS (F100, 107, Maps 1, 3), Carthaginian trading settlement on the West African coast, surviving into Eratosthenes’ day, at the modern Leucos River in Morocco.LILAIA (F2, Map 4), city in Phokis mentioned in the Homeric Cata-logue of Ships (Iliad 2.523), near modern Kato Agoriani in Greece.LOPADOUSA (F105, Map 3), island in the Mediterranean between Sicily and Tunisia, modern Lampedusa.LOTOPHAGITIS (F105, Map 3), “place of the Lotus Eaters,” believed by Eratosthenes to be the island of MENINX, modern Jerba off the southeast coast of Tunisia.
238 GAZETTEERLYKAONIA (F60, Map 5), district of south central Anatolia, impor-tant for its location on main trade routes, under varying control in Era-tosthenes’ day.LYKIA (F60, Map 5), district of southwestern Anatolia, largely under Ptolemaic control in Eratosthenes’ day.LYKOS (F83, 119, Map 5), name of two rivers. F83 refers to one in Assyria, crossed by Alexander and on a route to the interior, the modern Great Zab in Iran and Turkey. The LYKOS RIVER of F119 empties into the Black Sea and is probably the modern Kelkit Çay.LYNX (F100, 107, Map 3), name for city in West Africa, more prop-erly LIXOS, and probably not used by Eratosthenes.LYSIMACHEIA (F60, Map 4), city in Thrace founded in 309 BC and an important trading center, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels, modern Baklaburun on the Gallipoli peninsula of Turkey.MAIOTIC LAKE or MAIOTIS (F24, 34, 115–16, Map 4), the large bay on the north side of the Black Sea, the modern Sea of Azov.MAKAI, PROMONTORY OF (F94, Map 6), the peninsula on the Arabian side of the entrance to the PERSIAN GULF, modern Ras Mu-sandam in Oman.MAKEDONIA (F11, 136–7, Map 4), district at the northwestern cor-ner of the AEGEAN, in Eratosthenes’ day controlling much of northern Greece.MAKEDONIAN GULF (F134, Map 4), the northernmost part of the AEGEAN.MALEIA (F134–5, Map 4), the traditional southernmost point of the Greek peninsula (Cape Tainaron to the west is actually about 7 km. far-ther south), modern Cape Malea.MARIABA (F95, Map 6), major city of the Sabaioi in southern ARA-BIA, perhaps modern Marib in Yemen.MARMARIDAI (F100, Map 5), waterless desert region of the inte-rior KYRENAIKA.MASSALIA (F34, 60, 133, Map 3), most important Greek city of the western Mediterranean, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels, modern Marseilles in France.MATIENE (F15, Map 5), little-known region between ARMENIA and MEDIA, around modern Lake Urmia in Iran.MAUROUSIA (F39, 60, 100, 107, Map 3), northwestern coastal Africa west of the Carthaginian territory, a vast region under semi-Hellenized kings in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Morocco (which preserves the name) and Algeria.

239MEDIA (F13, 48, 60, 78, 83, Map 5), upland territory southwest of the Caspian Sea, the historic land of the Medes, under Seleukid control in Eratosthenes’ day, located in northern modern Iran.MELANIAN (F134, Map 4) or MELAS (F11) GULF, the northwest corner of the AEGEAN, the deep bay west of the modern Gallipoli Pen-insula in Turkey known as the Gulf of Saros.MELITE (F33, Map 4), district of Athens, west of the Agora.MENINX (F104–5, Map 3), island on the African coast, modern Jerba off the coast of Tunisia.MEROË (F25, 34–6, 40–1, 43, 47, 50, 57–9, 68, 98, 100, Maps 1, 6), capital of AITHIOPIA on the upper Nile between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts, at the crossing of Eratosthenes’ main meridian and a paral-lel, the seat of a major kingdom in his day that was an important point of contact between the Ptolemaic world and interior Africa; modern Bagrawiya in Sudan.MEROPIA (F8), ﬁctional land created by Theopompos of Chios.MESOPOTAMIA (F38, 63, 83, 87, 89, Map 5), ancient territory be-tween the TIGRIS and EUPHRATES, in modern Iraq.METAGONION (F106, Map 3), territory of northwest Africa, near the southern PILLAR OF HERAKLES.MINAIA (F95, Map 6), city in southern ARABIA, modern Ma’in in Yemen.MOIRIS (F15, Map 5), lake in EGYPT west of the NILE, modern Birket Qarun in the Faiyum.MYSIA (F60, Maps 4, 5), district of northwest Anatolia, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels, ruled by Pergamon.NEAPOLIS (F6, 60, Map 3), Greek city in southern Italy, allied with ROME in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Naples in Italy.NIKAIA (F60, Map 4, 5), Greek city and Hellenistic foundation in northwest Anatolia, part of the kingdom of BITHYNIA in Eratosthenes’ day, modern ˙Iznik in Turkey.NILE (F8, 10, 33–4, 37, 41, 53, 55–6, 95, 98–100, 103, Maps 1, 5, 6), the famous river of EGYPT, whose essentially straight south-to-north course was instrumental in the determination of Eratosthenes’ main meridian.NIPHATES (F89, Map 5), mountainous region of eastern Anatolia, south of modern Lake Van in Turkey.OCEAN (F8–9, 33, 39, 70–2, 74, 78, 81, 94–5, 100, 103, 110, 153, Map 3), Greek OKEANOS, also called the EXTERNAL SEA, the stan-dard term for the body of water surrounding the three continents, and
240 GAZETTEERwhich was believed to be continuous. The more vague term OCEAN was probably anachronistic in Eratosthenes’ time as localizations, such as ATLANTIC, were coming into use.OCHOS (F24, 109, Map 7), river of central ASIA, location uncertain, probably one of the rivers of BAKTRIA, or a confusion with OXOS.OGYION (F8), unknown mountain.OGYRIS (F94, Map 6), island south of the PERSIAN GULF, location unknown.OLYMPIA (F140, Map 4), the major Greek sanctuary in the western PELOPONNESOS.OPIS (F83, 89), village on the TIGRIS in central MESOPOTAMIA, probably at modern Tell Mujeih’ in Iraq.ORKYNIAN (F150, Map 3), toponymic adjective of central EUROPE, exact meaning uncertain, but perhaps the Hercynian Forest of Roman times.OROPOS (F33, Map 4), disputed territory in central Greece on the border between Attika and Boiotia, modern Skala Oropou.ORTOSPANA (F78, 108, Map 7), town in central ASIA, perhaps at the location of model Kabul in Afghanistan.ORTYGIA (F6, Map 3), island at SYRAKOUSAI in Sicily, now con-nected to the mainland in modern Syracuse in Italy.OSTIMIOI (F37, Map 3), promontory of northwest EUROPE, loca-tion uncertain but probably one of the headlands of Brittany.OUXISAME (F37, Maps 1, 3), island off the northwest coast of EU-ROPE, perhaps modern Ushant (which was a peninsula, not an island, in antiquity, but certainly preserves the name).OXOS (F24, 108–10, Maps 1, 7), river of BAKTRIA, the modern Amu Darya, ﬂowing into the Aral Sea.PALIBOTHRA or PALIMBOTHRA (F22, 69, 72, 74, Maps 1, 7), the Greek form of Pataliputra, capital of the Mauryan empire of INDIA, modern Patna on the GANGES.PANCHAIA (F8, 14), mythical land described by Euhemeros of Messene.PANTIKAPAION (F61, Map 5), Greek city at the northern edge of the Black Sea, part of the Bosporan kingdom, at modern Kerch in the Crimea.PAPHLAGONIA (F60, Map 5), district of northern Anatolia, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels, under indigenous rule in his day.PAPHOS (F130, Map 5), city of western Cyprus, either Palai Paphos (at modern Kouklia) or Nea Paphos (at modern Kato Paphos, 16 km.
GAzETTEER 241away) founded in the late fourth century BC. Both were under Ptole-maic control in Eratosthenes’ day.PARACHOATHRAS (F108, Map 5), mountain of ARMENIA.PARAITAKENE (F78, 83, Map 5), district of the central Iranian pla-teau, southeast of MEDIA.PARAPAMISIDAI or PAROPAMISIDAI (F23, 78, Map 7), district in the Hindu Kush, northwest of INDIA and north of ARACHOSIA.PARAPAMISOS or PAROPAMISOS MOUNTAINS (F23, 69, 108, Map 7), range in central ASIA, north of INDIA, essentially the modern Hindu Kush.PARTHYENE (F78, Map 5), district east of the Caspian Sea, on the modern Iran-Turkmenistan border, the ancestral home of the Parthians, who broke away from Seleukid control in Eratosthenes’ day.PATALENE (F74, 77. Map 7), district at the mouth of the INDOS, in modern Pakistan.PELETHRONION (F8, Map 4), region in the vicinity of MT. PELION in THESSALY associated with the centaur Cheiron.PELION (F6, 8, Map 4), mountain in THESSALY, which retains its ancient name.PELOPONNESOS (F47, 60, 129, 134, 146, Map 4), the southern por-tion of the Greek peninsula.PELORIAS (F6), probably modern Capo Peloro at the eastern tip of Sicily.PELOUSIAC MOUTH (F98, Map 5), the easternmost mouth of the NILE.PELOUSION (F15, 17, 62, Map 5), city on the Mediterranean at the PELOUSIAC MOUTH of the NILE, the normal entry point to EGYPT from the northeast, modern Tell el-Farama.PERSEPOLIS (F83, 86, Maps 5, 6), Persian royal city, under Seleu-kid control but in decline in Eratosthenes’ day, at modern Taht-e Gam-sid in Iran.PERSIAN GULF (F77–9, 81, 83, 89, 93–4, 98, Maps 1, 5, 6), also called the PERSIAN SEA, the large inlet extending northwest from the Indian Ocean, which retains its ancient name.PERSIS (F60, 64, 77–8, 81, 83, 85, Map 5), district of the southern Iranian plateau, north of the PERSIAN GULF, the ancestral home of the Persians, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels and under Seleukid control in his day.PETRA (F95, Map 5), the famous trading center of northern ARA-BIA, which retains its ancient name, in modern Jordan.
242 GAzETTEERPEUKE (F148–9, Maps 4, 5), island at the mouth of the ISTROS RIVER, not identiﬁable today but part of the Danube delta.PHAROS (F10, 16, 154, Map 5), Homeric locale off the coast of EGYPT, where the famous lighthouse of ALEXANDRIA was built in the early third century BC.PHAROS (F145, Map 3), island off the Illyrian coast, part of the Il-lyrian kingdom in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Hvar in Croatia.PHASIS (F8, 52, 119–20, Map 5), river of the Caucasus region, ﬂowing into the Black Sea at KOLCHIS, the modern Rioni in Georgia.PHENEOS (F140, Map 4), city of the northern PELOPONNESOS, modern Kalyvia in Greece.PHRYGIA (F15, 94, Map 5), district of central Anatolia, under weak Seleukid control in Eratosthenes’ day.PILLARS OF HERAKLES (F13, 15–17, 37, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55–6, 65–6, 83, 100, 106, 133, 135, 154, Map 3), the point where the Mediter-ranean joins the ATLANTIC. In antiquity there was debate about what constituted the PILLARS (see F106), since there were several candidates along the 50-kilometer strait between the two bodies of water, but opinion generally favored the two mountains at the east end, KALPE and ABILYX (or ABILA), modern Gibraltar and Jebel Mousa.PLANKTAI (F106), the “Wandering Rocks” or “Clashing Rocks,” Ho-meric locale (Odyssey 12.61, 23.327) associated with the Sirens, placed by some around the PILLARS OF HERAKLES.PONTOS (F8, 13, 15–6, 23, 33, 47, 52, 60, 115–16, 119, 131, 134, Maps 5, 6), a district of north central Anatolia, in Eratosthenes’ day in the early stages of consolidating its power, but to him the term consis-tently refers to the sea bordering the territory, the Black Sea, a term used interchangeably with the EUXINE.PORTHMOS (F7, 51, 65, 135, Map 3), “the Strait,” but when used speciﬁcally always the one between Sicily and Italy, the modern Strait of Messina.POSEIDONIAN GULF (F6, Map 3), the bay south of the Bay of Na-ples, the modern Gulf of Salerno in Italy.PRETTANIKE (F34, Maps 1, 2, 3), original Greek name for Great Britain, but soon erroneously changed to BRETTANIKE.PROPHTHASIA (F78, 108, Map 7), city so named by Alexander in DRANGIANE, perhaps near Farah in western Afghanistan.PROPONTIS (F15–16, 47, 50, Map 4), the sea between the HEL-LESPONT and BOSPOROS, the modern Sea of Marmara.
GAzETTEER 243PTOLEMAIS (F41–2, 59, 95, 97, Map 6), agricultural outpost on the Red Sea founded by Ptolemaios II, exact location unknown but roughly on the same latitude as MEROË.PTOLEMAIS (F60, Map 5), Phoenician city named by Ptolemaios II, which became the major Hellenistic port for the southern Levant, mod-ern Akko in Israel.PYRENAIOI or PYRENES (F51, 133, 152, Map 3), the westernmost portion of the European mountains, still only vaguely known in Eratos-thenes’ day, the modern Pyrenees.RED SEA (F41), Roman term for the western gulf of the ERY-THRAIAN SEA, the modern Red Sea.RHINOKOLOURA (F96, Map 5), town on the Mediterranean coast of eastern Egypt, modern el-Arish.RHIPAIA MOUNTAIN (F8, Map 3), the “tossing mountain,” early term for the mountains of the far north, more mythological than an ac-tual place.RHODES (F34, 47, 51, 53–4, 56, 60, 65, 83, 128, 148, Maps 1, 4), is-land in the eastern Mediterranean and important commercial state in Eratosthenes’ time, crucial to his scheme as it was where his main me-ridian and parallel crossed.ROME (F60, 65, Map 3), Italian city. Eratosthenes showed no inter-est in its developing role toward the Greek world, merely using it as a topographical point.SABATA (F95, Map 6), city in southern ARABIA, modern Shabwa in Yemen.SACRED PROMONTORY (Map 1): see HIERON.SALMYDESSOS (F15, Map 4), coastal region of Thrace on the Black Sea, near modern Midye in Turkey.SAMOSATA (F88, Map 5), royal city of KOMMAGENE in eastern Anatolia on the EUPHRATES, modern Samsat in Turkey.SAMOTHRAKE (F11, Map 4), island and major cult center in the northern AEGEAN, which retains its ancient name.SARDO (F151, 154, Map 3), or SARDON, island in the western Med-iterranean, which became a Roman province in Eratosthenes’ day, mod-ern Sardinia.SARDOAN SEA (F15, 127, Map 3), the sea immediately to the west of Sardinia.SCHERIA (F8), Homeric locale, the land of the Phaiakians, believed in antiquity to be KORKYRA (modern Corfu).SEIRENAI or SEIRENOUSSAI (F6–7, Map 3), rocks off the coast of Italy where it was believed that the Sirens lived, probably the islets
244 GAZETTEERtoday called li Galli south of the Sorrento peninsula, which preserve the name.SELEUKEIA (F87, 89, Map 5), city on the TIGRIS founded by Se-leukos I, the major Seleukid center of the central portion of its empire, at modern Tell Umar in Iraq.SIDON (F60, Map 5), Phoenician city, an independent state in Era-tosthenes’ day, modern Saida in Lebanon.SIKELIA (F6, 8, 16, 127, Map 3), the island of Sicily, largely under Roman control in Eratosthenes’ time.SIKELIAN SEA (F15–16, 127, Map 3), the region just east of Sicily, toward mainland Greece.SIKELIAN STRAIT (F16, 47, 53, Map 3), often just “the Strait” (PORTHMOS), the Strait of Messina.SINOPE (F47, 60–1, Map 5), independent Greek city on the north coast of Anatolia, lying on one of Eratosthenes’ parallels, modern Sinop in Turkey.SIRBONIS (F15, Map 5), coastal lake in eastern EGYPT, the mod-ern Sabkhat el-Bardawil.SKEIRONIAN ROCKS (F11, Map 4), off the coast of the Megarid, associated with the giant Skeiron, who attacked Theseus; the speciﬁc location is unknown.SKYLLA and CHARYBDIS (F6–7, Map 3), the famous monster and whirlpool of mythology, usually localized at the north end of the Strait of Messina, the latter at the Cariddi off the eastern point of Sicily, oppo-site the mainland village of Scilla.SKYTHIA (F53, Maps 1, 2, 5), speciﬁcally the region north of the Black Sea, but used generically to mean the farthest parts of the world to the north and east. Eratosthenes usually used the ethnym topograph-ically (except at F53). The SKYTHIAN DESERT (F15) seems to refer to the coastal areas north of the mouth of the ISTROS in the modern Ukraine, which, however, are difﬁcult to characterize as “desert.”SOUNION (F134, Map 4), the southernmost point of ATTIKA in Greece.SOUSA (F13, 64, 83, 85–6, Map 5), ancient Elamite capital and later a Persian royal residence, under Selukid control in Eratosthenes’ day and lying on one of his parallels, modern Shush in Iran. The surrounding territory was SOUSIANA (F60, 94). The SOUSIS of F91 is a variant.STETHES (F15, Maps 4, 5), “The Breasts,” place on the eastern shore of the Black Sea between SALMYDESSOS and the mouth of the ISTROS, noted for its shallows.

245STYMPHALOS (F140, Map 4), city and adjoining lake in the north-eastern PELOPONNESOS.SYENE (F34, 41, 43, 57–9, 98, Maps 1, 6), Egyptian town at the First Cataract of the NILE, whose location at the tropic was essential to Era-tosthenes’ scheme.SYMPLEGADES (F106, 117, Maps 4, 5), “The Clashers,” a hazard to sailors, generally placed at the entrance to the Black Sea (perhaps the same as the KYANEAI), but believed by some to be at the PILLARS OF HERAKLES.SYNORMADES (F118), “The Movers,” perhaps the same as the SYMPLEGADES.SYRAKOUSAI (F6, 60, Map 3), Greek city on the east coast of Sicily, sacked by ROME late in Eratosthenes’ life, the modern Syracuse (Sir-acusa) in Italy.SYRIA (F13, 60, Map 5), district of the Levant, stretching south from Anatolia to Phoenicia and toward the interior, in Eratosthenes’ day the heart of the Seleukid empire, loosely corresponding to modern Syria.SYRRENTON (F6, Map 3), city on the south edge of the Bay of Na-ples, an Oscan outpost, modern Sorrento in Italy.SYRTES (F100, 104–5, Maps 3, 4), the great bays of the Mediterra-nean in northeast AFRICA. The eastern portion, which includes the southernmost point of the Mediterranean and lies just west of the KYRENAIKA, is the Greater Syrtis (the modern Gulf of Sidra off Libya); to the west is the Lesser Syrtis (the modern Gulf of Gabès off Tunisia).TAGOS (F133, Map 3), river of IBERIA, the modern Tajo (Spain) or Tejo (Portugal.TAMASSOS (F130, Map 5), mining location on CYPRUS, in the cen-tral uplands near modern Politiko.TAMNA (F95, Map 6), city of southwest ARABIA, modern Hajar Kuhlan in Yemen.TANAIS (F8, 14, 24, 33, 38, 135, Map 5), river emptying into the northeastern Black Sea, the most remote toponym in the northeast of the inhabited world, the modern Don.TAPROBANE (F35, 53, 57, 74, 76, Maps 1, 7), island to the south of INDIA, little known in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Sri Lanka.TARRAKON (F152, Map 3), indigenous city on the northeast coast of IBERIA, under Roman control late in Eratosthenes’ day, modern Tar-ragona in Spain.TARTESSIS (F153, Map 3), district of southern IBERIA, important trading area under Phoenician and later Carthaginian control, with
246 GAZETTEERGADEIRA as its most important city, essentially the southwestern part of modern Anadalucía in Spain.TAUROS (F47–9, 53, 55–6, 63, 66, 69, 71–2, 77, 87–8, Maps 1, 5), east-west mountain range of ASIA, seen by Eratosthenes as dividing the inhabited world, originally the mountains of southern and eastern Anatolia (where the name survives), but also used to describe the moun-tains east through Iran (the modern Elburz) and into Afghanistan as far as the Hindu Kush.TEREDON (F83, 94, Map 5), village in lower Mesopotamia near the coast, location unknown because of changes in topography, but perhaps near modern Basra in Iraq.TERSOS (F124, Map 5), early name for Tarsos, the ancient trading city of southeastern Anatolia.THAPSAKOS (F52, 55–6, 62–3, 80, 83–4, 87, 94, Map 5), ancient major crossing point on the EUPHRATES, used by Alexander, and an important point in Eratosthenes’ scheme, location unknown, perhaps near modern Dibse in Syria.THASOS (F11, Map 4), island in the northern AEGEAN, a Makedo-nian possession in Eratosthenes’ day, retaining its ancient name.THERMAIC GULF (F65, Map 4), at the northwest corner of the AE-GEAN, which retains its ancient name.THERMODON (F8, 119, Map 5), river of northern Anatolia, emptying into the Black Sea, perhaps the modern Terme Çay in Turkey.THESSALONIKE (F133, Map 4), Makedonian port city, retaining its modern name.THESSALY (F18, Map 4), district of northern Greece. It is not cer-tain that Eratosthenes mentioned the region.THISBE (F2, 8, Map 4), city in western Boiotia mentioned in the Homeric Catalogue of Ships (Iliad 2.502), at modern Kakkosi.THOAS (F105, Map 3), town on the island of MENINX off the North African coast, location uncertain but probably at modern Houmt Souq in Tunisia.THOPITIS (F87, 89, Map 5), lake that the TIGRIS allegedly ﬂows through, probably modern Lake Van in Turkey, which, however, is not in the TIGRIS drainage.THOULE (F14, 34–5, 37, Maps 1, 2, 3), place in the far north discov-ered by Pytheas of MASSALIA but not reached by anyone else, the most northern place in the world, almost certainly Iceland.THRACE (F11, 136, Map 4), district to the north of the AEGEAN, under Makedonian control in Eratosthenes’ day.

247THRACIAN CHERSONESOS (F134, Map 4), the peninsula at the east end of THRACE between the HELLESPONT and the MELANIAN GULF, the modern Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey.THRACIAN MOUNTAINS (F51, Map 4), term used generally for the mountains north of the AEGEAN, such as the modern Rhodope range on the Greek-Bulgarian border.THYREA (F33, Map 4), plain on the west side of the Gulf of Argos, disputed by Argos and Sparta, the modern Kynouria district in Greece.TIGRIS (F13, 38, 63, 83, 87, 89, Map 5), the eastern river of MESOPOTAMIA.TINX (F100, Map 3), indigenous name for LIXOS, on the West Afri-can coast.TITENIS (F121), district and river around the Black Sea, location unknown.TOMISA (F88), town on the upper EUPHRATES, probably not men-tioned by Eratosthenes, location uncertain but perhaps near modern ˙Izolü in Turkey.TROAD (F34, Map 4), district of northwest Anatolia.TROGODYTIKA (F41, 59, 95, 97–8, Map 6), district between the Red Sea and NILE, mostly in modern Sudan, loosely allied with Ptole-maic EGYPT. Ancient and modern writers often misspell the toponym as “Troglodytika,” which gives an erroneous impression.TROY (F2, Map 4), famous ancient city in northwest Anatolia, prob-ably at modern Hisarlık in Turkey.TYRE (F60, Map 5), Phoenician city, under Ptolemaic control in Era-tosthenes’ day, modern es-Sur in Lebanon.TYROS (F94, Map 6) or TYLOS, island in the PERSIAN GULF, of interest to Greeks because of its exotic tropical ﬂora and fauna, modern Bahrain.TYRRHENIA (F6, Map 3), the Greek term for the land of the Etruscans.TYRRHENIAN SEA or GULF (F16, 127, 134, Map 3), the sea be-tween Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.WALL OF SEMIRAMIS (F83, 89, Map 5), traditional name for a for-tiﬁcation running between the TIGRIS and EUPHRATES where they were closest together (in antiquity about 40 km. apart), more commonly called the “Wall of Media,” and believed to be the existing wall remains in the Habl es-Sahr region of Iraq.WESTERN SEA (F16), early term for the ATLANTIC OCEAN.XANTHOS (F60, Maps 4, 5), primary city of LYKIA in Anatolia, under Ptolemaic control in Eratosthenes’ day.
248 GAzETTEERzARIASPA (F108, Map 7), primary city of BAKTRIA, also known as BAKTRA, modern Balkh in Afghanistan.zEUGMA (F87–8, Map 5), “The Crossing,” major crossing of the EU-PHRATES in KOMMAGENE, carefully controlled by the Selukids, modern Balkis in Syria.zONOS RIVER (F111, Map 5), afﬂuent into the Caspian Sea, per-haps the modern Ural.

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Appendix 1On the Measurement of the EarthEarly commentators such as Bernhardy and Berger did not recognize the existence of this work, but included its fragments in Book 2 of the Geographika. For a full discussion of why the Measurement is indeed a separate work, see A. Thalamas, Le géographie d’Ératosthène (Versailles 1921) 65–78. For further on the treatise, see also G. Knaack, “Eratosthe-nes von Kyrene” (#4), RE 6 (1907) 364–6; and for discussions on the calculations involved, see Cleomedes (ed. Bowen and Todd), ﬁgs. 14–15 and pp. 81–4; Kidd, Commentary 720–2; Geus, Eratosthenes 223–59; Georgio Dragoni, Eratostene e l’apogeo della scienza greca (Bologna 1979) 161–232.There are three testimonia that identify the Measurement:a. Heron of Alexandria, Dioptra 35, where the title is quoted: Pr`i th˜ aÉnamtrh´sv th˜ gh˜.b. Galen, Institutes of Logic 26–7, a summary of mathematical and as-tronomical issues, all from a single work of Eratosthenes’, with no title provided, but not from the Geographika.c. Macrobius, in his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio (1.20.9), pro-vided a title, “Eratosthenes in libris dimensionum,” which seems a Latin condensation of Heron’s title. The topic is the relative size of the sun and earth.The fragments of the Measurement follow:M1 (IIB19). Geminos, Introduction to Astronomy 16.6–9.(6) In order to measure carefully the great circle of the earth below the celestial meridian, ﬁnding that it is 252,000 stadia with a diameter of 84,000 stadia, one divides the celestial meridian into 60 parts, with each section called a sixtieth and containing 4,200 stadia, for if 252,000 sta-dia are divided by 60, a sixtieth is 4,200 stadia.
264 APPENDICES(7) The distances between the zones are determined in the following manner. The two cold zones each have a width of six sixtieths, which is 25,200 stadia. The two temperate zones each have a width of ﬁve sixti-eths, which is 21,000 stadia. The hot zone has a width of eight sixtieths, so that from the equator to the tropic on either side is four sixtieths, which is 16,800 stadia.(8) From the terrestrial pole, which lies below the celestial pole, to the terrestrial arctic [circle], is therefore 25,200 stadia, and from the terrestrial arctic, which lies under the celestial arctic, to the terrestrial tropic, which lies under the celestial summer tropic, is 21,000 stadia. From the summer tropic to the terrestrial equator, which lies under the celestial equator, is 16,800 stadia. (9) In turn, from the equator to the other tropic is 16,800 stadia, from the tropic to the arctic is 25,200 sta-dia, and from the arctic to the other pole, 25,200. All together, the dis-tance between the poles is 126,000 stadia, which is half the circumfer-ence of the earth. Thus from pole to pole is a semicircle.M2 (IIB24). Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio 2.6.2–5.(2) The whole circuit of the earth, that is, the circuit that encloses the entire circumference, represented by ABCD, has been divided by those who calculated its measurements into 60 parts. (3) The entire circum-ference is 252,000 stadia, and thus each part extends for 4,200 stadia. Thus, without doubt, its midpoint, that is from D east through A as far as C, has 30 [parts], and 126,000 stadia. A quarter portion, that is from A to C, beginning at the middle of the torrid [zone], has 15 [parts] and 63,000 stadia. By providing the measurement of this quarter portion, the entire dimension of the whole circumference can be established. (4) From A to N, which is in the middle of the torrid [zone], is four sixti-eths, which makes 16,800 stadia. Therefore the entire torrid zone is eight sixtieths and contains 33,600 stadia. (5) The width of our zone, which is the temperate one, that is from N to I, is ﬁve sixtieths, which makes 21,000 stadia. The extent of the frigid [zone], that is from I to C, is six sixtieths, which is 25,200 stadia.M3 (IIB30). Vitruvius 1.6.9.. . . the circumference of the world, determined by means of the path of the sun and the equinoctial shadows of the gnomon and the inclination of the sky, was discovered by Eratosthenes of Kyrene through mathe-matical calculations and geodesic methods to be 252,000 stadia. . . .

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE EARTH 265M4 (IIB31). Pliny, Natural History 2.247.Eratosthenes (perceptive in everything cultural, but especially knowl-edgeable in this matter, and who, I see, is accepted by all) established its entire circumference as 252,200 stadia, which in Roman measure-ments is calculated as 31,500 miles. This is a daring presumption, but expressed by such a subtle argument that one is ashamed not to believe.M5. Censorinus, On the Birthday 13.2.For Eratosthenes, through geodesic calculation, concluded that the max-imum circumference of the earth was 252,000 stadia.M6 (IIB34, 35). Kleomedes, Elementary Theory 1.7.Natural philosophers have had many theories about the size of the earth, but the better ones are those of Poseidonios and Eratosthenes. The latter proves its size by a geodesic method, but that of Poseidonios is simpler. Each takes certain assumptions and then comes to a proof by means of the result of the arguments.[Poseidonios’ method deleted.]That of Eratosthenes uses a geodesic method and seems somewhat obscure [some general assumptions deleted]. He says that Syene and Alexandria lie below the same meridian. Since the meridians are great circles in the cosmos, those of the earth lying below them necessarily are also great circles. Thus this procedure shows that the size of the cir-cle of the earth through Syene and Alexandria will be the same as the great circle of the earth. He says, and this is so, that Syene lies below the summer tropical circle. Thus when the sun enters the Crab and makes the summer solstice, exactly at this meridian, by necessity the gnomons on the sundials are shadowless, since the sun lies exactly above. This is said to be [an area] 300 stadia in diameter. In Alexandria, however, at the same time, the gnomons on the sundials cast a shadow, since this city lies further north than Syene. Since the cities lie below a meridian and a great circle, if we draw an arc from the point of the shadow of the gnomon to the base of the gnomon on the sundial at Alex-andria, this arc will be a section of the great circle in the basin of the sundial, since the basin of the sundial lies below a great circle. If we then conceive of straight lines falling through the earth from each of the gnomons, they will come together at the center of the earth. Since the sundial at Syene lies directly below the sun, if we further conceive of a straight line going from the sun to the point of the gnomon of the
266 APPENDICESsundial, it will be a single straight line going from the sun to the center of the earth. If we conceive of another from the point of the shadow of the sundial going from the basin of the sundial at Alexandria up to the sun, this and the previous line will be parallel, extending from different parts of the sun to different parts of the earth. Another straight line ex-tending from the center of the earth to the gnomon at Alexandria meets these parallel lines, and thus makes the alternate angles equal. One of these is at the center of the earth at the intersection of the lines drawn from the sundials to the center of the earth. The other is where the point of the gnomon at Alexandria intersects that drawn from the point of the shadow of the gnomon to the sun through the point where the line touches.The arc drawn from the point of the shadow of the gnomon around to its base stands on this, and that from Syene to Alexandria stands on the center of the earth. The arcs are similar to each other, since they stand on equal angles. The ratio of the one in the base to its own circle is the same as the ratio of that drawn from Syene to Alexandria. The one in the basin is found to be a ﬁftieth part of its own circle. Necessar-ily, then, the distance from Syene to Alexandria must be a ﬁftieth part of the great circle of the earth, and this is 5,000 stadia. Thus the entire circle is 250,000 stadia. This is Eratosthenes’ procedure.At the winter solstices sundials are placed in each of these cities, and when each casts a shadow, necessarily the one at Alexandria is found to be longer, because that city is farther from the winter tropic. Taking the amount that the shadow at Syene is exceeded by that at Al-exandria, they ﬁnd this to be a ﬁftieth part of the great circle of the sun-dial. Thus from this it is also obvious that the great circle of the earth is 250,000 stadia.M7 (IIB41). Martianus Capella 6.596–8.The circumference of the earth was calculated at 252,000 stadia by the most learned Eratosthenes, using a gnomon. There are round contain-ers of bronze called skaphia, which mark the course of the hours by means of a vertical stylus placed in the center. This stylus is called a gnomon, whose shadow, measured at the equinox by determining its distance from the center when multiplied 24 times provides the mea-sure of a double circle. Eratosthenes was provided by the surveyors of King Ptolemaios the number of stadia from Syene to Meroë, and discov-ered what portion of the earth this was and multiplied it by the appro-priate amount, determining without hesitation how many thousands of stadia make up the circumference of the earth.
ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE EARTH 267M8 (IIB42). Ptolemy, Mathematical Syntaxis 1.67.22I have found that the arc from the northernmost limit to the southern-most, that is the section between the tropics, is always 47 degrees and more than two thirds of a degree but less than three quarters, which is almost the same as what Eratosthenes calculated and Hipparchos also used, for the arc between the tropics is almost exactly 11 out of the 83 in the meridian.M9 (IIB42). Theon of Alexandria, Commentary on the Mathematical Syntaxis (ed. Rome, vol. 2, p. 528, 20).This is almost the same as that of Eratosthenes, which Hipparchos also used, because it had been calculated accurately, as Eratosthenes calcu-lated the entire circle at 83, and found that the part between the tropics was 11. And 360 is to 47 degrees 42 minutes 40 seconds as 83 is to 11.
Appendix 2Testimonia for the Life of EratosthenesThe sources for the life of Eratosthenes are scattered. See the biograph-ical sketch in this volume (supra, pp. 7–15) and FGrHist #241, T1–14. Following are the ﬁve most important.1. Souda, “Eratosthenes.”Eratosthenes, son of Aglaos, or of Ambrosios, a Kyrenaian, a student of the philosopher Ariston of Chios, the philologist Lysanias of Kyrene, and the poet Kallimachos. He was summoned from Athens by the third Ptolemaios and survived until the ﬁfth. Because he was second in ev-erything that he knew, although approaching the best in his education, he was called “Beta,” and by others the second or new Plato. Others called him Pentathlos. He was born in the 126th [?] Olympiad [276–273 BC] and died at the age of 80, refusing food because of his weakening eyesight. He left as his most distinguished pupil Aristophanes of Byzan-tion, whose pupil was in turn Aristarchos [of Samothrake]. His [Eratos-thenes’] pupils included Mnaseus, Menandros, and Aristis. He wrote philosophy, poetry, and history, Astronomy or The Constellations, On the Systems of Philosophy, On Living Without Pain, many dialogues, and extensive philological works.Critical Note: The date of Ol. 126 is generally rejected, as it would be too late for study with Zenon of Kition (Strabo 1.2.2, #3 below). Either of the two previous Olympiads is possible (and each would re-quire the change of only a single letter), with Ol. 124 (284–281 BC) per-haps the better choice (see Fraser, PBA 176).2. Oxyrhynchos Papyrus #1241, col. 2, lines 1–8.. . . [Apollonios] the son of Silleus, of Alexandria, called the Rhodian, a student of Kallimachos and the teacher of the ﬁrst [third?] king. Eratos-
TESTIMONIA FOR THE LIFE OF ERATOSTHENES 269thenes succeeded him, and after him Aristophanes the son of Apelles, of Byzantion, and then Apollonios of Alexandria, called the “Classiﬁer,” and after him Aristarchos son of Aristarchos, originally from Samothrake: he became the teacher of the children of [Ptolemaios VIII] Philopator [per-haps an error for Ptolemaios V or VI]. After him was Kydas, from the spearman, and under the ninth king [Ptolemaios VIII?] there ﬂourished Ammonios, Zenodotos, Diokles, and Apollodoros the grammarian.Critical Note: The papyrus, from the second century AC, is a cata-logue of lists of historical and mythological data. It is the primary source for the sequence of Librarians. See Bernard P. Grenfell and Arthur S. Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 10 (London 1914) 99–112.3. Strabo 1.2.2.As he [Eratosthenes] himself says, he knew notable men. “For,” he says, “it happened at this particular time, as never before within one enclo-sure or one city, that philosophers ﬂourished, such as those around Aris-ton and Arkesilaos.” I do not think that this is enough, as there must be a precise deﬁnition as to which of them one should follow. But he places Arkesilaos and Ariston at the head of those who ﬂourished in his time. Apelles is also conspicuous to him, as well as Bion, whom, he says, was the ﬁrst to clothe philosophy in ﬂowery dress, but people often said this about him:Bion [shows] such, from under his rags.[Homer, Odyssey 18.74].In these very statements he demonstrates a signiﬁcant weakness in his own judgment, for, although he was acquainted in Athens with Zenon of Kition, he does not mention any of his successors, but he only men-tions those who differed with him and who could not keep their own school alive and ﬂourishing at the time. His publication titled On the Good shows this, as well as his Exercises and whatever else he wrote in such a manner: he was thus in the middle between wishing to be a phi-losopher and lacking the conﬁdence to attempt this undertaking, only advancing far enough to appear to be one, having provided himself an escape for his regular cycle, whether for education or amusement. This is also the fashion in his other writings.Critical Note: The Homeric line refers to the disguised Odysseus, substituting “Bion” and omitting the remainder of the line, which in its entirety reads “Such a thigh the old man shows from under his rags.”
270 APPENDICES4. Archimedes, Method of Mechanical Theorems, Preface.Archimedes to Eratosthenes, greetings. Previously I sent you some of the theorems I had discovered. . . . Moreover, I see in you, as I say, an eager student and a notably eminent scholar. . . .Critical Note: This is the only extant contemporary comment on Eratosthenes and demonstrates the professional relationship he had with Archimedes.5. Dionysios of Kyzikos (Greek Anthology 7.78).A softening old age with no darkening through disease quenched you and put you to deserved sleep pondering great things, Eratosthenes. Mother Kyrene did not receive you into the paternal tombs, son of Aglaos, but you are buried as a friend in a foreign land, here on the edge of the shore of Proteus.Critical note: Dionysios is otherwise unknown. This is probably the actual epitaph for Eratosthenes, erected at his tomb in Alexandria when he died around 200 BC. The “shore of Proteus” is a Homeric refer-ence to Egypt (Odyssey 4.365, 385).
Appendix 3Lengths of MeasurementIn 1949 the distinguished scholar of ancient mathematical geography, Aubrey Diller, wrote:. . . the Greek stade was variable and in particular instances almost always an uncertain quantity. The most problematical aspect of the ancient measurements of the earth is the length of the respective stades. Some light can be thrown on it, but the matter requires cir-cumspection, and those who blithely convert in casual parentheses or footnotes are usually unaware of the difﬁculties and mistakes in their statements.1Nothing has changed in the past 60 years. The length of the stadion is as uncertain as ever, yet many scholars continue to ignore Diller’s wise ad-vice.2 Although those who attempt to calculate the length of Eratosthe-nes’ stadion are generally concerned with the Measurement rather than the Geographika, they rarely take into account another essential fact about Eratosthenes’ scholarship: there is no reason to believe that Era-tosthenes always used the same length of stadion. In fact, he could not. Most of his data was based on overland or oversea distances obtained 1 Aubrey Diller, “The Ancient Measurements of the Earth,” Isis 40 (1949) 7–8.2 See, for example, Massimo Cimino, “A New, Rational Endeavour for Understand-ing the Eratosthenes Numerical Result of the Earth Meridian Mesurement,” in Com-pendium in Astronomy (ed. Elias G. Mariolopoulos et al., Dordrecht 1982) 11–21, who determined Eratosthenes’ stadion to be 157.5 m.; Donald Engels, “The Length of Eratos-thenes’ Stade,” AJP 106 (1985) 298–311, at 184.98 m., but with serious reservations; and Edward Gulbelkian, “The Origin and Value of the Stadion Unit Used by Eratosthe-nes in the Third Century B.C.,” AHES 37 (1987) 359–63, at 166.7 m. See also Sarah Pothecary’s astute “Strabo, Polybios, and the Stade,” Phoenix 49 (1995) 49–67, which wisely avoids considering Eratosthenes. If one takes the difference of 27.5 m. between the above measurements and applies it to Eratosthenes’ 23,000 stadia from Borys-thenes to Meroë (F36), it becomes 632.5 km., hardly inconsequential.
272 APPENDICESfrom travelers’ and sailors’ reports, not astronomy. Moreover, Eratosthe-nes used several additional forms of measurement: the schoinos (F27, 72), the sailing day (F94), and the caravan day (F95). And to complicate matters further, many of his distances survive only in Roman miles (F27–8, 42, 70, 93, 97, 101, 103, 105, 111, 115–16), which he never used.The stadion ﬁrst appears in Greek literature in the ﬁfth century BC. Herodotos was probably the ﬁrst to cite it: he deﬁned it as 600 feet.3 Its use by Aristophanes indicates that it was ﬁrmly in the vernacular by the beginning of the fourth century BC.4 But the fact remains that just as there was no consistent scheme of chronology, there was none for dis-tances and measurements, and ancient writers were often as confused as modern ones. A metrological table of late antiquity, attributed to Julian of Askalon, calculates the Roman mile at 8¼ of the stadia Eratosthenes and Strabo used, adding that the equivalent of “today” is 7½ stadia.5 Yet Strabo himself wrote that “most” calculate eight stadia to the mile, but Polybios used a stadion that equaled 8¹⁄³ to the mile.6 Pliny used a con-version of eight stadia to the mile for Eratosthenes (F27). Using the equivalent of 1,480 m. to the Roman mile, this provides a range of 177.7 to 197.3 m. for a stadion. This may seem slight until one takes into ac-count the vast distances Eratosthenes was using, which demonstrates part of the problem: before the Hellenistic period few had any interest in tens of thousands of stadia, so minor differences in length were un-important. Eratosthenes’ other measurements are even more uncertain: sailing and caravan days are anyone’s guess, and the schoinos was said to be 40 stadia for Eratosthenes (F27) but could vary between 30 and 120 stadia even over the same route,7 a revealing indicator of the pit-falls of understanding ancient measurements.Yet the important point is that, given these variables, and doubtless others that are unknown, it strains credulity to believe that one can de-termine the actual length of each and every of the many stadion dis-tances recorded by Eratosthenes. It would have been impossible for him to have used stadia of the same length throughout. His distances were acquired from a variety of sources over a century, from Pytheas and the Alexander companions (if not earlier) to his own time. More importantly, they covered a wide geographical range: from eastern India to East Af-rica to Central Asia and northwest Europe. There is no way of determin-3 Herodotos 1.26, 2.149, etc.4 Aristophanes, Frogs 91; Clouds 430.5 See Poseidonios, F203 Kidd.6 Strabo 7.7.4.7 Strabo 17.1.24.
LENGTHS OF MEASUREMENT 273ing the degree of accuracy of Eratosthenes’ informants, or whether sta-dion distances published by these sources had already been converted from other measurements, and how accurately. One suspects that many of Eratosthenes’ sources provided data in schoinoi (something implied in F27) and that he converted these, obviously at 40 stadia to a schoinos: but there is no guarantee that the original schoinoi were all of the same length. It is unlikely that Eratosthenes’ sources gave equivalents or de-ﬁned their measurements. Moreover, the recension of Eratosthenes’ text adds to the difﬁculties: if Eratosthenes used a stadion that was an equivalent of 8¼ to a Roman mile, but Polybios 8¹⁄³ and Strabo 8, this means that all of Eratosthenes’ measurements in the latter two authors would have some amount of error: the 23,000 stadia from Borysthenes to Meroë would be 2,788 miles using Eratosthenes’ stadion, 2,761 miles according to Polybios, and 2,875 miles according to Strabo, a difference of 182 km. And there is no way of determining whether Strabo, when he was quoting Polybios quoting Eratosthenes, made any conversions. One can make some modern approximations, or perhaps note when a dis-tance provided by Eratosthenes seems highly inaccurate, but the “cir-cumspection” advised by Diller long ago is still essential.

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Index of Passages CitedItalicized numbers are citations in ancient texts; romanized numbers are pages in this volume.Greek and Latin SourcesAetios 3.17.3, 133; 4.1.1, 120, 199Agatharchides F8, 31n118 Agathemeros Prologue 5, 176; 1.1–2, 5n25, 61, 146, 148; 1.5, 161Aischylos😛ersians 255, 220; 718, 3n10Prometheus 415, 119; 422, 140; 707–35, 204; 719, 140; 804–5, 121Ammianus Marcellinus 22.8.10, 100; 22.8.37, 207; 22.15.8, 190; 22.15.31, 67; 23.6.64, 230Androsthenes of Thasos (FGrHist #711) F2, 122, 193; F4, 194–5Antigonos of Karystos, Paradoxes 145, 157 Apollodoros of Athens (FGrHist #244), Com-mentary on the Catalogue of Ships F154–207, 119Apollonios of Rhodes, Argonautika 4, 131–2, 209; 337, 216; 517, 216; 1215, 216Appian, Syrian War 55, 183Aratos of Soloi, Phainomena 462–510, 144; 752–1154, 113Archimedes😮n Floating Bodies 1, Prop. 2, 132On the Method of Mechanical Theorems, Preface, 12n64, 270Sand Reckoner, 143Aristeides 36.86–95, 133, 180Aristophanes:Frogs 91, 272Clouds 430, 272Aristotle:Metaphysics 1.5.1, 5n21Meteorologika 1.9, 180; 1.13, 142, 165, 218; 2.1, 5n20, 140, 142, 206; 2.1–2, 131; 2.3, 135; 2.4, 124; 2.5, 5n17, 6n26, 22n96, 145, 146, 148, 176; 3.5, 5n17 On the Heavens 2.13, 5nn18 and 21, 129; 2.14, 6nn26 and 27, 7n32, 143, 148Poetics, 113Politics 2.8, 220Research on Animals 7(8).13, 134Rhetoric 2.11.7, 3n9; 2.23.11, 12n61Arrian:Anabasis 3.3–4, 129; 3.7, 187; 3.19–21, 187; 3.20, 164; 3.30.6–9, 140; 4.1.3, 204; 5.3.1–4, 56–7; 5.4.1, 183; 5.6.2–3, 82; 7.15–16, 206; 7.20.7–8, 193, 194Indika 3.1, 33n126; 3.1–5, 83; 43.7, 195Athenaios:Book 1: 2a, 30n112; 3, 11n52; 16d, 30n112; 24b, 30n112Book 2: 36ef, 30n112; 41d, 30n112; 70ab, 125Book 4: 140a, 30n112; 153e, 165; 154a, 30n112 Book 5: 189d, 30n112Book 7: 276, 15n79, 30n112; 281c, 30n112; 284d, 30n112; 304b, 9n45Book 8: 346, 14n77Book 9: 376b, 30n112 Book 10: 418a, 30n112; 442b, 18n87Book 11: 482a, 30n112; 499e, 30n112Book 13: 561a, 111Book 14: 620c, 9n45; 652f–3a, 138Augustus, Res gestae 31, 27n106Caesar, C. Julius, Gallic War 2.34, 155; 3.9, 155; 5.13, 166; 6.24, 15n83, 32n124, 106; 6.25–8, 218; 7.75, 155Censorinus, On the Birthday 13.2, 33n130, 265; 15.2, 8n43, 33n130Cetius Faventinus, M., de diversis fabricis ar-chitectonae 2, 124Cicero, M. Tullius:de natura deorum 1.35, 131de re publica 6.21–2, 14n76Letters to Atticus #24, 32n123, 111; #26, 32nn122, 123, and 124, 111; #27, 111pro C. Rabirio Postumo Oratio 23, 11n54Cornelius Nepos 11.1–4, 215
282 INDEX OF PASSAGES CITEDClement of Alexandria, Stromateis 1.16.75, 120Curtius, Quintus 4.49.16, 191; 7.10.15, 205Demosthenes😮n the Crown 48, 145, 220On Halonnesos 35, 145, 220Dikaiarchos F2, 142; F120, 141; F122, 7n34; F123, 161, 176; F125, 203Dio, Cassius 41.24.3, 218Dio Chrysostom😮n Homer (53) 4, 114To the Alexandrians (32) 36, 20n91Diodoros 1.33, 152; 1.53–8, 197; 2.36, 180; 5.47.4–5, 131; 13.80.3, 171; 14.91.2–3, 215; 15.13.4, 216; 15.49, 214, 215; 17.49–51, 129; 19.98, 135; 20.29, 143; 21.81–100, 210Diogenes Laertios 1.99, 132; 1.111, 119; 2.1–2, 4n13, 124; 2.65–86, 8n42; 4.28–45, 9n44; 4.46–57, 9n44; 5.58–64, 19n89; 5.78, 11n54; 7.1.38, 9n44; 7.160–4, 9n44; 8.25–6, 5n24, 136, 137; 8.63, 130; 9.21.2, 5n23; 9.46, 1n3, 112; 9.48, 2n3Dionysios of Kyzikos (Greek Anthology 7.78), 15n81, 270Empedokles of Akragas F111, 130Ephoros (FGrHist #70) F30a, 6n29; F131–4, 6n29, 112Epikouros, Letter to Herodotos 74, 147Eratosthenes of Kyrene:Chronographiai F1–3: 14n73; F9–15, 14n73Geographika F1, 2, 17, 18n86, 20, 41, 111–12, 128, 148, 212; F2, 9n46, 11n58, 21, 31n118, 41–2, 111, 112–14, 115, 122, 149, 225, 229, 232, 235, 237, 246, 247; F3, 21, 42, 111, 114–15, 149, 232; F4, 21, 43, 111, 115, 149; F5, 21, 43, 111, 115–16, 149; F6, 21, 43–4, 111, 116–17, 119, 149, 224, 233, 234, 236, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247; F7, 21, 45, 111, 117–18, 119, 149, 224, 226, 229, 237, 242, 243, 244; F8, 9n46, 11n58, 18, 18n86, 19, 21, 45–7, 111, 113, 118–22, 123, 125, 149, 208, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246; F9, 9n46, 11n58, 21, 47, 111, 122–3, 125, 149, 230, 231, 236, 239; F10, 21, 47–8, 111, 123, 149, 226, 229, 239, 242; F11, 21, 48, 104, 111, 124, 149, 224, 227, 233, 237, 238, 243, 244, 246; F12, 4, 4n13, 9n46, 11n58, 17, 49, 111, 112, 124–5, 149; F13, 17, 19, 28, 29, 49–50, 125–7, 128, 149, 211, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 234, 236, 237, 239, 242, 244, 245, 247; F14, 50–1, 102, 116, 127, 128, 136, 145, 153, 212, 219, 220, 228, 230, 233, 237, 240, 245, 246; F15, 17, 19, 22, 51–2, 128–31, 134, 135, 141, 148, 214, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244; F16, 20, 52–5, 130, 131, 132–4, 157, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 237, 242, 244, 247; F17, 55, 134–5, 230, 234, 235, 241, 242; F18, 55, 135, 196, 246; F19, 15n82, 22, 55, 121, 136; F20, 17, 56, 121, 136–7, 224; F21, 18, 56, 121, 136, 137; F22, 19, 22, 56, 121, 137, 138–9, 175, 179, 240; F23, 33, 56–7, 121, 139, 140, 163, 176, 178, 179, 184, 204, 234, 235, 237, 241, 242; F24, 57, 121, 139–40, 163, 167, 176, 178, 179, 184, 204, 205, 227, 230, 233, 234, 235, 238, 240, 245; F25, 15n82, 21, 22, 24n100, 58, 141, 144, 148, 149, 225, 228, 239; F26, 22, 58, 141–2; F27, 22, 32, 58, 142, 178, 272, 273; F28, 23, 32, 58–9, 142–3, 144, 272; F29, 59, 143–4, 237; F30, 21, 23, 23n99, 59–60, 144–7, 148, 149, 154, 155, 156, 159, 168, 227; F31, 23, 60–1, 146, 147, 148, 157; F32, 61, 112, 148; F33, 18, 22, 35, 61–2, 112, 148–51, 176, 226, 227, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 240, 242, 245, 247; F34, 23, 29, 62–4, 128, 144, 146, 148, 151–4, 155, 157, 159, 161, 162, 166, 171, 225, 228, 233, 234, 236, 238, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 247; F35, 64, 128, 153, 154–5, 163, 166, 167, 169, 173, 199, 225, 228, 229, 232, 236, 239, 245, 246; F36, 64, 155, 228, 232, 239, 271n2; F37, 18, 29, 64–5, 128, 146, 149, 154, 155–6, 161, 164, 166, 212, 213, 224, 230, 233, 234, 235, 239, 240, 242, 246; F38, 65, 149, 156, 224, 230, 231, 239, 245, 247; F39, 23, 65–6, 156–7, 171, 227, 233, 234, 238, 239; F40, 17, 19, 22, 24, 28, 66, 151, 157, 158, 159, 175, 199, 224, 239; F41, 18, 24, 28, 32, 66–7, 151, 157–8, 169, 199, 228, 233, 234, 239, 243, 245, 247; F42, 24, 24n101, 28, 32, 67, 151, 157, 158, 228, 243, 272; F43, 24, 28, 67, 151, 158–9, 224, 239; F44, 14, 67, 159, 169; F45, 14, 23, 68, 159–60, 169; F46, 69, 161; F47, 15n82, 19, 21n94, 69–70, 161–3, 164, 165, 167, 178, 204, 225, 227, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246; F48, 70, 163–4, 166, 173, 226, 235, 239, 246; F49, 20, 70–1, 164, 173, 174, 175, 234, 242, 246; F50, 4n16, 19, 22, 27, 71, 139, 164, 172, 225, 227, 232, 233, 234, 236, 239, 242; F51, 20, 24, 71–2, 164–5, 167, 174, 211, 225, 228,
INdex oF PASSAgeS CITed 283231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 242, 243, 247; F52, 20, 72–3, 164, 165–6, 168, 172, 173, 185, 207, 208, 229, 234, 235, 236, 242, 246; F53, 73–4, 155, 166–7, 169, 227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 236, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246; F54, 74, 167–8, 227, 234, 243; F55, 74–5, 164, 168, 172, 229, 235, 239, 242, 246; F56, 21n94, 75, 164, 168, 185, 225, 227, 232, 234, 235, 239, 242, 243, 246; F57, 75, 168–9, 226, 236, 237, 239, 245, 246; F58, 76, 169, 199, 236, 239, 245; F59, 24, 76, 169–70, 225, 226, 231, 234, 237, 239, 243, 245; F60, 24, 25, 76–7, 118, 164, 170–1, 172, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247; F61, 17n85, 77, 171, 172, 225, 228, 240, 244; F62, 25, 77–8, 164, 172, 173, 227, 229, 230, 235, 241, 246; F63, 25, 78–9, 164, 172, 173, 226, 227, 230, 239, 246, 247; F64, 20, 24, 25, 79, 164, 173–4, 184, 227, 234, 235, 241, 244; F65, 24, 25, 80, 97, 118, 171, 174, 201, 212, 225, 230, 235, 242, 243, 246; F66, 26, 80, 164, 168, 175, 181, 226, 234, 242; F67, 18, 19, 27, 80–1, 129, 138, 164, 175, 176, 178, 225, 234; F68, 18, 27, 81, 129, 138, 175–6, 179, 234, 239; F69, 18, 19, 27, 81–2, 129, 138, 139, 164, 176–7, 178, 180, 226, 227, 230, 231, 233, 234, 240, 241, 246; F70, 32, 82, 129, 138, 176, 177, 230, 234, 239, 272; F71, 33, 82, 129, 138, 176, 177–8, 226, 227, 230, 234, 235, 239, 246; F72, 21n94, 33, 83, 129, 138, 178, 234, 237, 239, 240, 246, 272; F73, 18, 18n87, 83, 129, 138, 164, 178, 181, 182, 234; F74, 21, 27, 83–4, 129, 138, 154, 178–9, 182, 224, 229, 231, 234, 235, 239, 240, 241, 245; F75, 84, 129, 138, 164, 180–1, 234; F76, 32, 84, 129, 130, 180, 181, 245; F77, 18, 84–5, 129, 164, 181–2, 185, 226, 235, 241, 246; F78, 18, 24, 85–6, 129, 164, 181, 182–4, 204, 225, 226, 227, 229, 231, 235, 239, 240, 241, 242; F79, 86, 129, 164, 184, 185, 186, 226, 234, 235, 241; F80, 25, 86, 129, 164, 184–5, 226, 227, 235, 246; F81, 86–7, 129, 185, 204, 226, 227, 234, 235, 241; F82, 87, 185, 196, 226, 230; F83, 27, 87–9, 164, 185, 186–8, 189, 190, 191, 194, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247; F84, 89, 164, 186, 188, 189, 191, 227, 230, 235, 246; F85, 89, 164, 188–9, 227, 235, 241, 244; F86, 89, 164, 189, 241, 244; F87, 27, 90, 187, 189–90, 191, 198, 215, 226, 227, 230, 232, 235, 236, 239, 244, 246, 248; F88, 90, 190–1, 198, 227, 230, 234, 236, 243, 246, 247, 248; F89, 90–1, 187, 191, 192, 227, 228, 230, 232, 239, 240, 241, 244, 246, 247; F90, 27, 91, 191–2, 227, 230; F91, 91, 192, 209, 214; F92, 25, 26, 91, 185, 192, 196, 224, 226, 229; F93, 32, 91, 193, 226, 227, 230, 241, 272; F94, 18, 21, 27, 91–2, 122, 185, 187, 193–4, 197, 226, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 246, 247, 272; F95, 18, 21, 27, 93–4, 195–7, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 243, 245, 247, 272; F96, 94, 196, 198, 215, 226, 235, 236, 243; F97, 19, 32, 94, 198, 211, 213, 226, 243, 247, 272; F98, 28, 94–5, 152, 198–9, 224, 226, 227, 229, 230, 234, 236, 237, 239, 241, 245, 247; F99, 28, 95, 199–200, 239; F100, 95–7, 171, 200–1, 203, 224, 225, 227, 229, 230, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 242, 245, 247; F101, 20, 32, 97, 201, 225, 237, 272; F102, 97, 201, 225, 234; F103, 32, 97, 201, 239, 272; F104, 97, 201–2, 209, 227, 232, 235, 237, 245; F105, 32, 97, 202, 209, 224, 231, 235, 237, 245, 246, 272; F106, 97–8, 202–3, 208, 219, 224, 230, 231, 234, 237, 239, 242, 245; F107, 20, 28, 98, 171, 203, 224, 237, 238; F108, 27, 98–9, 164, 166, 203–4, 225, 227, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 240, 241, 242, 248; F109, 18, 27, 99, 194, 204–5, 225, 227, 232, 233, 237, 240; F110, 28, 99, 140, 206, 225, 233, 235, 239, 240; F111, 32, 99, 206, 225, 233, 248, 272; F112, 99, 206–7, 235; F113, 100, 207, 235; F114, 28, 100, 207; F115, 32, 100, 207, 228, 238, 242, 272; F116, 32, 100, 207, 238, 242, 272; F117, 1n2, 100, 207–8, 245; F118, 100, 208, 245; F119, 100, 208, 238, 242, 246; F120, 100, 207, 208–9, 226, 236, 242; F121, 100, 207, 208–9, 247; F122, 101, 192, 209, 231; F123, 101, 192, 209, 225, 228; F124, 101, 192, 209, 246; F125, 101, 209; F126, 32, 101, 209, 227; F127, 28, 32, 101, 209–10, 228, 243, 244, 247; F128, 16, 17, 20, 28, 101, 171, 202, 210, 225, 243; F129, 28, 101, 210, 236, 237, 241; F130, 17, 28, 101–2, 126, 210–11, 225, 229, 233, 236, 240, 245; F131, 20, 24, 29, 102, 142, 198, 211–12, 224, 227, 228, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 242; F132, 18, 19, 102, 128, 211–12, 230; F133, 18, 102–3, 212, 230, 233, 234, 238, 242, 243, 245, 246; F134, 17, 19, 103–4, 197, 198, 213, 224, 230, 234, 237, 238, 239, 241,
284 INDEX OF PASSAGES CITEDEratosthenes of Kyrene (cont.) 242, 244, 247; F135, 28, 104, 213, 224, 230, 233, 234, 238, 242, 245, 246; F136, 104, 213, 238, 246; F137, 104, 192, 214, 224, 233, 238; F138, 104, 214, 227, 230; F139, 17, 104, 129, 214, 215, 232, 237; F140, 17, 104–5, 190, 198, 214–15, 216, 225, 226, 230, 237, 240, 242, 245; F141, 17, 105, 141–2, 226; F142, 105, 192, 216, 225; F143, 14, 28, 105, 192, 216, 226, 228, 229, 230; F144, 14, 28, 105, 192, 216; F145, 1n2, 14, 28, 105, 207, 216, 217, 242; F146, 14, 28, 105, 216–17, 233, 241; F147, 105, 192, 217, 225; F148, 28, 105, 207, 217, 234, 242, 243; F149, 28, 106, 207, 217, 234, 242; F150, 15n83, 29, 106, 218, 240; F151, 29, 106, 218, 237, 243; F152, 29, 106, 213, 218, 229, 232, 233, 234, 243, 245; F153, 22, 29, 106, 133, 155, 213, 218–19, 228, 230, 233, 234, 235, 239, 242, 245; F154, 106–7, 219–20, 228, 229, 242, 243; F155, 29, 29n109, 107, 171, 220–1Hermes F16, 14n75Katasterismoi 35, 134Measurement of the Earth, 263–7Olympionikai F4–8: 14n72Euclid:Elements, Deﬁnition 22, 164; Deﬁnition 23, 165Optics 19, 141Euhemeros of Messene (FGrHist #63) F1–11, 121, 126, 136Euripides:Andromache 795, 208Bakchai 1–31, 137Iphigeneia among the Taurians 260, 208; 355, 208; 1389, 208Medea 1263, 208Eustathios:Commentary on Dionysios Periegetis, 867, 101Commentary on Iliad, 2.612, 105Galen, Institutes of Logic 26–7, 263Gellius, Aulus 3.11, 117Geminos, Introduction to the Phenomena 5.16, 137; 5.28–9, 137; 15, 67; 16.6–9, 33n129, 145, 263; 16.32, 160; 17.5, 142; 17.48, 214Greek Anthology 7.78, 15n81, 270Hekataios of Abdera (FGrHist #264) F7–14, 121, 136Hekataios of Miletos (FGrHist #1), F45–58, 3n11; F91, 134; F99, 436; F101, 216; F184–93, 3n11; F296–9, 3n11; F325–8, 3n11Herodotos:Book 1: 2, 208; 16, 121; 26, 272; 58, 220; 101, 189; 125, 189; 170, 210; 173, 209; 179, 191; 183, 197; 184, 188; 185, 4n13; 195, 26n103; 201–10, 204; 203, 140, 206, 207Book 2: 6, 142; 12, 129; 20–5, 200; 29, 151; 30–1, 154, 199; 32, 123; 32–3, 2n6; 33, 165; 34, 4n15, 153; 102–11, 197; 109, 1n3; 137, 197; 149, 272Book 3: 47, 181; 93, 119, 181; 97, 140; 102–5, 138; 106, 181; 111, 152; 155, 188Book 4: 8, 203; 36, 136; 42, 4n12, 145, 149, 158; 42–3, 2n7; 43, 133, 156; 44, 3n8, 179; 45, 150; 48, 134; 49, 165, 217, 225; 83–93, 217; 85, 208; 152, 2n5, 203, 219; 170, 8n40; 177, 202; 183, 158; 184, 141, 201; 189, 8n40 Book 5: 49–54, 4n12Book 7: 62, 181; 65, 181; 89, 194; 129, 135Heron of Alexandria, Dioptra 35, 263Hesiod:Catalogue F40, 47; F45, 119, 200; F150, 136Theogony 337–45, 117; 338, 120, 123; 340, 208; 860, 117; 1016, 117 Works and Days 166–73, 114; 436, 215; 566, 156Hipparchos:Against the Geography of Eratosthenes F1–3, 112; F4, 157; F8, 133; F9, 134; F11, 31n117; F12, 153, 164; F12–15, 31n116; F18, 153; F21–2, 184; F23, 188; F24, 174, 188; F29, 166; F30, 166, 168; F31, 166; F36, 145; F38, 143; F43, 169; F48, 170; F49, 170; F50, 170; F51, 170; F52, 170, 171; F53, 170; F54, 170; F55, 170; F56, 170, 172; F57; 170Commentary on the Phenomena of Aratos and Eudoxos 1.4.1, 170Hippokrates (?), Airs, Waters, and Places, 147, 149Homer:Iliad: Book 2: 496, 45; 497, 45, 230; 502, 42, 45, 246; 503, 42, 45, 113, 232; 508, 42, 225; 523, 42, 235, 237; 603–14, 215; 867, 220Book 3: 3–7, 138; 6, 121Book 6: 169, 4n13; 184, 209; 204, 209Book 9: 1, 124; 5, 48Book 10: 429, 209Book 11: 494, 215Book 13: 5–6, 46, 120 Book 20: 96, 209Book 21: 86, 209Odyssey:Book 1: 23, 48, 224; 51–4, 203Book 3: 267–8, 41; 270–1, 42; 287, 2, 210